Medieval Deccan: Reflections Through the Lives of Madame Martin and Madame Dupleix

Madame Martin’s Journey to the East

François Martin was the son of Gilles Martin, born of Peronne Gosselin in 1634. His paternal family members were associated with the eastern trade from early times. François Martin’s grandfather’s name was also François, who had abundant knowledge about eastern products and whose father had a spice shop at Les Halles in Paris. Gilles Martin took indifferent step towards ensuring that his son received a training in a business career. He died in 1650, and three years after his death, Martin received his formal papers of legitimisation. With his father’s death, he was forced to take up a job with a grocer. He was in love with the daughter of a fish dealer by the name of Marie Couperly, and at the age of twenty-eight or twenty-nine, he married her. It is said that Couperly’s mother did not give her blessing to the marriage and therefore threw her daughter out. ² He had three daughters with her, namely Marguerite, Marie and Agnes.

Financial difficulties forced him to take up a job with the French East India Company, joining at first as an under-merchant and subsequently rising to the rank of merchant in 1667. ³ His wife followed him in his adventure to the East, and thus the following paragraphs are dedicated to her. Very little is known about Madame Martin; therefore, this article highlights her time in India.

Madame Martin could not bear the separation from her husband. She would always wait eagerly for his return. The long-distance relationship lasted for about twenty-two years. Only thoughts and memories reminded them of their love for each other. Martin could not take his family with him because he was only working as a merchant for the French East India Company, and there were Company policies regarding family restrictions.

Finally, his hard work paid off, and he was recognised for his skill when he was appointed the Director of the French Company in 1684. He wrote to the Company to allow to bring his family to India, and thus with great difficulty, they succeeded in bringing them. A very interesting account of the incident has been cited by R. G. Harshe. François Martin could not indicate any distinguishing mark on Madame Martin which would make her recognizable. He could only indicate the street and the house in which she lived, but considering the number of years which had passed by, the general scenario of the street had changed and nobody had any idea of her. It took a lot of effort and at last it paid off when those men who had been sent to bring her were passing through a street near Halle that they heard Madame Martin’s name being called out. Apparently, she had a pending bill for her fishes, and the concerned person was looking for her. It was this chance event which then decided her future. ⁴

But by that time, two of his daughters were married to two wealthy merchants, the oldest and the youngest to M. Lauriau and M. Desprez, respectively, from the bourgeois class in Paris. Accordingly, Madame Martin and her daughter Marie set sail for India to be reunited with François Martin. ⁵

Madame Martin and her daughter arrived in Suvali (located near Surat) on 8 December 1685, and after a few days, they were reunited with François Martin in Surat. They were in awe with the extravagant welcome they received. Monsieur des Landes, an employee to the Company, had taken a liking towards Marie. He had accompanied them on the same ship to India. Thus, a wedding seemed inevitable, and the family prepared for the occasion accordingly.

When François Martin was appointed the Director of Pondicherry, the family then proceeded towards Pondicherry to be settled there. Their lodge in Pondicherry was somewhat smaller than the one in Surat. It had two courtyards and a terrace, accompanied by two bastions covered with stones and bricks and furnished with eight cannons. They were soon greeted by important guests from the Council of Madras, M. Luccas, and two other Englishmen. They came on behalf of the governor of Madras to congratulate them on their safe arrival. ⁶ On 20 November 1686, François Martin was blessed with a granddaughter. This joyous occasion called for a celebration and, as Yvonne Robert Gaebelé pointed out, several European people of the town wished Madame des Landes good health. ⁷

Indian Society as Portrayed by Madame Martin

On Madame Martin’s view of the Indian society, she remarks that there were slaves and she was amazed at the low wages they worked at. However, Edmond Gaudart negates the idea that slavery existed in Pondicherry. He conforms to the notion that it was confined to domestic service—that children were sold by their own parents during times of famine. They were generally free upon the death of their masters or when the masters returned to France. ⁸

Madame Martin distinguishes between two types of Brahmins, one from a higher caste and the other from a lower caste. The Brahmin from a higher caste had a shaved head and three large stripes on the forehead, two white and one red in the middle. A cord passed diagonally over their naked torso draped in white muslin. The Brahmin from a lower caste also had the same signs, but there were others who had a small mark in between their eyes. A Christian Brahmin, on the other hand, had no marks on his forehead, but his neck was adorned with medals and scapulars. ⁹ Thus, she distinguishes them by their marks.

She says that she was highly respected by the Banians. ¹⁰ They had adorned them with expensive gifts. The Banians were themselves richly clad, and their enormous turban was made of very fine muslin. Around their waist hung a broad and short sabre, and the scabbard was covered with gold plates and the hilt enriched with diamonds; the sabre was supported by a large gold chain. ¹¹ She was in awe with the heavy jewellery worn by rich Hindu women. She says, ‘Their ears sparkle; as also the stones of the jewel that stuck on their nose, and the heavy silver bracelets of the ankles which ring when they walk’. ¹² It is important to note here that her amazement with the jewelled clad Hindu women was particularly because she saw India as a small country of indigent people before she arrived, and her whole viewpoint on India changed once she experienced it.

From Madame Martin, we get to learn of the famine that struck Pondicherry in 1686. Martin brought in boats filled with rice, which he sold to the unfortunate. However, in December, he was informed by the merchants that they could not provide the promised shipments because of lack of provisions in the whole country. Faced with this difficulty was the annexation of Bijapur ¹³ by Aurangzeb. She tells us that Martin’s anxiety grew every day, as she watched her husband with pity, and she could only give him her support. ¹⁴ She heard about the political events from Monsieur Saint-Jacques (physician to Aurangzeb), as their everyday conversations would be about the Mughal Emperor. Saint-Jacques would narrate to Madame Martin about the extravagant life of the Mughal Emperor and his vast riches, the gold, diamonds and so on, which he had in his palace and the weighing ceremony ¹⁵ that was practised. The Emperors throne was ornamented with diamonds, pearls and precious stones. After hearing of the fortune of the Emperor, it changed her outlook of the King of France. ¹⁶ Until now she believed that he was the most powerful king in the world, but when she came to India, her narrow outlook of the world changed. Thus, her stay in India taught her about the various customs and traditions of the people of India and that the King of France was nothing compared to the Mughal Emperor.

Madame Martin as an Advisor

Saint-Jacques had come to Pondicherry as he was on leave for two years to visit his sick mother in France. Madame Martin thought that having him as a friend would be of great help to François Martin because of his connections to the court. ¹⁷

François Martin sought the advice of his wife regarding the pursuance of slave trade. Since Pondicherry was worst hit by the famine, people came and offered themselves as slaves just to eat rice; parents themselves sold their children. A group of merchants approached Martin and told him to start the slave trade because the English and the Dutch had greatly profited from it. S. Arasaratnam points out that in the seventeenth century, the quickening pace of trade across the Indian Ocean led to certain developments in the trafficking of slaves. ¹⁸ Arvind Sinha also states that in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, the Portuguese and Dutch presence had a major impact on slave traffic, which therefore introduced new demand for slave labour in maritime Asia. ¹⁹ Thus, with these scenarios in mind, the merchants advised Martin to start the slave trade. However, he refused to give them any answer and said that he would have to consult with his wife. ²⁰ It seems that Madame Martin was opposed to the idea; thus, we find no evidence of slave trade conducted during the time of François Martin. Even in the eighteenth century, fragmentary sources were available on the slave traffic on the eastern coast of India. Therefore, what we can deduce from here is that Madame Martin influenced her husband’s Company policy. Although not much information is given on this fact, it is very clear that with the influence of his wife, slave trade did not exist during the seventeenth century of French imperialism.

Her Hospitality Towards Distinguished Dignitaries

Hosting duties are often reserved for the wives of nobles. The tradition continues even in modern times. We should not look at it as something insignificant but change our understanding as to how it played a crucial role in forming alliances. Alliances are often formed at the outset of a dinner table. Dignitaries often bond over food and, thus, it is very important to represent an upright impression in the first meeting.

The duty of Madame Martin was to host the guest of importance to the Company. An instance occurred when the grand director of the Company, Mr Céberet, had arrived in Pondicherry. He stayed in one of Martin’s lodge, and Madame Martin was constantly worried if she did not do her job properly. This was her first time taking care of someone with a high rank. ²¹ She served her guests with extravagant and sophisticated food, which was prepared with the help of her servants.

Thus, this shows that she cared well for her husband’s guests, and therefore putting the needs of the Company first was her priority. Also, given the fact that during this period, women were often confined to household activities, Madame Martin showed that she could take care of her guests with excellence. This in a way also served her purpose of keeping entertained, since they had nothing much to do during their spare time.

A Supporter to Her Husband

At the outset of this article, I mentioned that too much importance will not be given to her husband, but it is almost impossible to completely take him out of the equation, since Madame Martin’s real aim in India was to be united with her husband. Therefore, she was the biggest supporter, ally and friend to her husband.

Martin’s numerous contribution to the Company made him a crowned jewel in the affairs of the Company, and the Company very much contended with his bravery and intrepidity and therefore raised him up to be the general of French in India. Madame Martin stood by her husband’s side when the sword of Monsieur du Quesne was handed over to François Martin. ²² It was a special occasion when he was recognised and saluted with the thunder of the cannon and musketry in 1690.

When Madame Martin first arrived in Pondicherry, she was filled with enthusiasm, but after a few years, her experiences of the political turmoil exhausted her, for example, the Mughal siege of Gingy and the surrounding areas where she had to escape to San Thomé. She advised her husband to return to France where they could live a peaceful life and for Martin to get to know his other two daughters as well. But Martin refused to acknowledge his wife, and the two grew old in Pondicherry. ²³ During the capitulation of Pondicherry under the Dutch, Madame Martin had to flee to San Thomé again, while François Martin was left behind. They only kept in touch through letters. She wrote back to him asking him to leave Pondicherry and to go to Bengal with her where her daughter and son-in-law were, but again this time Martin refused. On 19 August 1693, she was reunited with her husband. ²⁴

Thus, we can trace the rise of Madame Martin from a fish-seller to an aristocratic woman in India. This fact is a testimony of India presenting a sea of opportunities to foreigners. They left their homeland in the hope for a better future, and this was the case with Madame Martin. However, when she was troubled by the political conditions prevailing in Deccan, she insisted on François Martin to return to France; however, her requests fell on deaf ears. Perhaps by that time the Martins must have accumulated huge amounts of wealth, and Madame Martin was willing to go back to France as a changed woman. François Martin was however determined to stay back and did not want to leave the Company behind. As a result, the Martins never left India and Martin’s wish was fulfilled.

One can say that Madame Martin did not actively participate in her husband’s political affairs but subtly presented her ideas to her husband. She only came to India to support her husband morally and preferred to stay discreet when it came to the matters of political prominence. She was not so outspoken. She looked after her husband’s welfare and the welfare of the important people around him. The period of Madame Martin also reflects the general scenario of the French East India Company. In the seventeenth century, while the Company was getting a foothold of its various bases on the Indian subcontinent, it was mainly driven by trade profits. Thus, we do not find any evidence of an expansionist agenda. Hence, in a way, the efforts of Madame Martin were more of a support system for her husband.

Background of Madame Dupleix

Jeanne Dupleix or Madame Dupleix or Jan Begum, as she was popularly known in India, was the wife of the famous French governor, Joseph Dupleix. She adopted the Persian name ‘Jan’ as a signature name and, thus, was widely known as Jan Begum. She was the daughter of M. Albert, a surgeon of the French Company at Pondicherry, and Elizabeth Rose de Castro. ²⁵ She had five sisters and two brothers. She was baptised on 2 June 1706 by Father Thomas, a Capuchin priest. Her godfather was the nephew of François Martin and Madame Martin. ²⁶ She married Jacques Vincens on 5 June 1719. Jacques Vincens was a member of the Messieurs de Saint Malo (served the Company as councillor in Pondicherry from 1723 to 1733). M. Albert was his personal physician. She was married by thirteen and gave birth to a son at only fourteen. Her son served the French Company under Dupleix during the siege of Pondicherry. ²⁷

Jeanne would often get involved in the administrative conversations of her husband. He was a good friend of Dupleix too. She would get her husband and Dupleix to report on the most interesting Council debates, discuss with them and give her opinion. Dupleix was delighted to have such conversations with Jeanne. He envied M. Vincens for having a wife who was so useful, who gave advices and who developed his thinking.

Jeanne realised that her husband would need the support of Dupleix in order to be appointed Second du Comptoir; therefore, she shrewdly advised her husband to get in touch with Dupleix who was an enterprising character, who had a daring imagination and a general talent which would bring him to the head of the business. M. Vincens, on the other hand, was an alien to the Indian enterprise. Thus, he needed someone as smart as Dupleix to make a fortune in India. ²⁸ In the meantime, Jeanne also developed a close relation with Madame Dumas; she astutely calculated that this move would be beneficial for her husband.

When Dupleix was transferred to Chandernagore, it is observed that the Albert–Vincens families were filled with sadness at the separation. On the day of the departure, Madame Vincens organised a novena at the Ariyankuppam church. ²⁹ Dupleix constantly wrote to his dear friend, M. Vincens. On 30 November 1731, he wrote, ‘Farewell, I will write to you through the other vessels’. ³⁰

In one of his letters, Dupleix convinces M. Vincens to join him in his adventure in Chandernagore. He had accumulated a vast fortune from his Asian trade because his regular trade links with China made him huge profits. He wanted to share such profits with M. Vincens. He tried to persuade Vincens to settle in Chandernagore because he would not get huge sums from his councillor job in Pondicherry. Dupleix asked him to be his supercargo ³¹ in his proposed trip to China via Surat. ³² While convincing Vincens to move to Chandernagore, Dupleix asked his friend not to take any decision without first consulting his wife (letter written on 5 June 1732). Dupleix writes, ‘You can communicate my letter to your wife. Do nothing without consulting her first…. In truth I have no other desire than to render service to both of you’. ³³ The scheming diplomat finally convinced the Vincens to move to Chandernagore and, in 1733, M. Vincens and his family joined Dupleix. ³⁴

From Madame Vincens to Madame Dupleix

From the early days, Jeanne was no stranger to the political environment. Her father and husband’s connection enabled her to move smoothly in such a setting. She had taken keen interests in the functioning of the administration. M. Vincens died in 1739 at Chandernagore at the age of fifty; the cause of his death is unknown. ³⁵ Dupleix knew that having Jeanne by his side would be a blessing in disguise. She likewise added to that proficiency a quickness of comprehension and zealous devotion to his interests. G. B. Malleson remarks that ‘of Madame Dupleix I find it recorded that her wise counsels and her energy sustained her husband in all his traits. She was with him during the whole period of his administration of French India’. ³⁶ Thus, her appealing character wants research as to the intensity of influence she had on Dupleix, as Dupleix was a famous character in French Indian history. His diplomatic, trading and religious policies need to be examined from this aspect.

Therefore, it was of no surprise that Dupleix asked her to marry him. She was thirty-three at that time. They got married in Chandernagore on 17 April 1741. ³⁷ He had taken a liking to her since the early days and jumped at the opportunity. He knew from the start that she would be an asset to his Company ventures.

Her Pivotal Role in Dupleix’s Activities

While at Chandernagore, she kept herself updated with the news of the prevailing situation by having conversations with the locals. She then would communicate the important news to her husband. ³⁸ This was perhaps a precursor to her involvement in her husband’s political affairs, because later we would find out that she would hire spies to help Dupleix in his agenda.

Dupleix in his commercial dealings in Chandernagore took the help of Jeanne for commercial correspondence in the local language. He admits that to entrust such a correspondence to a local interpreter would also mean that he would have to divulge his secrets of operation. ³⁹

By 1740, he was reassigned to go back to Pondicherry. They left for Pondicherry in December 1741 and settled there on 13 January 1742. ⁴⁰ Dupleix’s second relocation or second phase of settlement in Pondicherry marks a very important beginning in his career, and it was the period that he was accompanied by his wife in his administrative dealings. The passages that follow deal with Madame Dupleix’s contribution towards French imperialism. She was more of an active player than Madame Martin ever was.

Her Role as a Skilful Polyglot

Madame Dupleix was a lady born and educated in India, but her strong yet devoted character and brilliant intellect made her an admirable companion for the far-sighted and deep-scheming politician. He was impressed with Jeanne, especially when she gave orders to her Indian servants in their own native languages who came from various regions of the country. ⁴¹ Her proficiency in the native languages rendered her an invaluable aid to Dupleix and his confidential dealing with the native princes.

Ananda Ranga Pillai formed strong opinions about Madame Dupleix. He called her ‘Madame la governante’. He disliked her and said that she got involved in everything that did not concern her. Perhaps the most worrying part was that she took over Ananda Ranga Pillai’s career as an interpreter. According to him, she should be playing the role of a supportive wife without interfering much in the administrative affairs like all the other women who were afraid of such acts. ⁴² He thought that she was his rival, and the mistrust and hate come from the fact that he was a Hindu who was in charge of the Company’s treasury. ⁴³ This opinion of Ananda Ranga Pillai was probably due to the fact that Madame Dupleix was affiliated to the missionaries. The Jesuit missionaries in particular were in favour of appointing a chief Dubash (interpreter) who was a Christian.

During the siege of Pondicherry in 1748, Madame Dupleix helped her husband by going to the districts of each village and interacting with the locals and giving her advice on how to resist the English. ⁴⁴ She also hired spies (pally’s) in order to help her husband defeat the English. ⁴⁵ She was in charge of a body of a hundred spies; she received valuable information from them which helped her husband decide on certain issues. They reported on the Indian princes and the activities of the English. They were dressed accordingly and were paid well. They were from the same caste, and their leader was Saverimouttou. He reported everything to Madame Dupleix at the end of the day. Madame Dupleix made good use of her spies during the siege; the planned attacks of the English were stolen by them. ⁴⁶ Ananda Ranga Pillai says that the locals feared the spies more than the attacks of the English. He somewhat paints a picture of a wife who was a dictator. However, this is a one-sided opinion and should be taken with a pinch of salt. When the French captured the English political prisoners, they were sent to Pondicherry and at the instance of his wife, Dupleix started questioning them. ⁴⁷

Her Achievements

The defeat of the English brought immense joy to Madame Dupleix, as the fruits of her labour were paid off. She and her European friends went to church the next day. Dupleix was overwhelmed with happiness when he was congratulated upon by many; but more so he was overjoyed with the fact that his wife had a share in his success. He praised his wife in a letter which he wrote to his brother on 19 October 1748. He said that the nation owes her, wherein the use of her spies paid off, it gave them a better advantage against the English that she was one of the finest politicians that anyone could ask for. In short, she was the star during the siege. ⁴⁸ In another letter to his sister-in-law of Bacquencourt dated 28 December 1749, he wrote, ‘You have learnt that this courageous woman served at best, during the long siege. The services she rendered to me were essential, and to overcome them [English] she risked her life’. ⁴⁹

Thus, to rejoice the happy outcome, a few notables of the city hastened to give celebrations. On 4 December 1748, M. O’Friell (married to Jeanne’s niece, Marie-Françoise Aumont) had a ball at his home, followed by a dance of the bayadéres. ⁵⁰ The news of his success reached Paris, and they rewarded him by giving him the title of Commandant de forts de Pondicherry, and Madame Dupleix was appointed as a member of the Legion d’honneur. ⁵¹ Thus, from the above event, we can say that it was Dupleix who called his wife for help.

Ananda Ranga Pillai, on the other hand, portrays her as a villain in his diary, as someone who always interfered in her husband’s business. She accompanied her husband to his ceremonial visits to the court of the local princes. Through her intellectual and brilliant manipulation, she dissuaded the Indian princes who were ready to join forces against Dupleix and at times persuaded them to have an alliance with him. She would pen down the correspondences to the local rulers; she had a knack for writing; in her letters written on behalf of her husband, she made the princes as allies to the French. She was helped in this by her spies who informed her directly of their intentions. ⁵² Her services were indispensable to Dupleix. Even the directors in Paris feared the actions of Madame Dupleix so much so that when he was recalled, they ordered for her to be brought back to France. But, as for Ananda Ranga Pillai, he was not accustomed to the idea of a woman being involved in the administrative affairs.

Madame Dupleix and the Missionaries

The French Crown and its agents were engaged in two central efforts in India: first, building the town of Pondicherry into a prosperous trading hub; second, converting local men and women to Catholicism. Louis XIV by a Royal Edict in 1695 permitted the French Jesuits of Missions Etrangeres to settle down in all the French factories in India to propagate Catholicism. They had to be protected, respected and favoured since they wielded much power in Paris. ⁵³ The role of missionaries is not very difficult to recognise, reconfigure local spirits and believes and substitute it with Christianity. The two efforts at the heart of the French presence in South Asia were making money and making Christians. French colonial trade and Catholic religious missions were both concerned with creating and propagating a colonial vision of order, authority and morality.

The French Crown and the Company of the Indies had since the early 1630s commissioned Catholic missionaries to convert natives and to catechise and civilise French colonists. Beginning in 1639, French Ursuline nuns joined Jesuit capuchins and Dominican missions in ministering to Amerindian women and establishing schools for the daughters of French inhabitants. Their role in colonial project put them right at the centre of colonial jurisdictional squabbles, and their story reveals the level to which power struggles among church, state and commercial entities (and between central and peripheral authorities) threatened the very success of early modern French colonies. ⁵⁴ Thus, one can say that the influence of missionaries on the political level cannot be ignored. The maintenance of the missionaries fell on the Company. A tax of four panams was levied in cash on all private ships armed in the various ports of the French East India Company for their purpose. ⁵⁵

The influx of people of various nationalities into Pondicherry between fifteenth and eighteenth centuries gave the city an opportunity for its own renaissance. The judicial records show presence of a much smaller population of local converts to Christianity, small community of Muslims and a handful of Armenian merchants as well as new arrivals from other parts of India beyond the Coromandel Coast. The three groups of French Missionaries were the Jesuits, Capuchins and the Société des missions étrangéres de Paris [Missions etrangeres et Paris (MEP)].

Madame Dupleix had high regards for the Jesuit missionaries and, thus, being at the pinnacle of power, she supported them in their religious cause. One incident was the destruction of VedapuriIsvaran temple. This temple was very close to St Paul’s church, which was a source of anxiety for the Jesuits. The Christian priests often irritated the temple priests. Dupleix in his religious policy sought the advice of his wife. Ananda Ranga Pillai wrote,

I think the Governor may have arranged (through Madame) for their help in certain Europe matters; so, as this is a time of war, there was much talk, a Council was held, and the priests were told that the Iswaran temple would be demolished … the priets [sic] of St Paul’s church have been trying for the last fifty years to pull down the Iswaran temple; former Governor’s said that this was the country of the Tamils, that they would earn dishonour if they interfered with the temple, that the merchants would cease to come here, and that the town would decay; they even set aside the King’s order to demolish the temple; and their glory shone like the sun. But the Governor listens to his wife and has ordered the temple to be destroyed, thereby adding shame to his dishonour. ⁵⁶

Another event was the directive of Governor Dupleix and Madame to destroy the ancient Muhammedan mosque which stood opposite the Capuchin church. The plan, however, did not fall through because Dupleix was stopped by Abdul Rahman (Head of the sepoy group stationed at Mahé) who threatened him that there would be bloodshed if the mosque was pulled down. ⁵⁷ Ananda Ranga Pillai says that if the Tamils were just as bold as the Muhammedans, their temple would still be standing. ⁵⁸ Abdul Rahman criticises the governor and says,

He is disquieting men by interfering with religions…. He listens to his wife, seizes men as spies…. God brings these troubles on the town in anger at Madame’s injustice; a town is sure to be ruined when it is governed by a woman who dominates her husband. The Councillors do nothing. Why do not they ask whether he is managing either the Company’s affairs or his own, and whether the Company appointed him or Madame Governor? Can they not tell him what injustice his wife commits? Is not this a sign of evil? Madame gives us orders even about the war. Is this Government? ⁵⁹

From these two illustrations, one can get a sense of how frustrated these men were. They did not like the idea of a woman dictating terms to them. Her interference in the affairs of the Company could not be accepted by them. On the other hand, Dupleix had full trust on his wife’s advices, because from the early days, the calculated moves benefited him and the Company at large. Thus, these incidents were a direct indication of Madame Dupleix’s role in the Company’s colonial policy.

The Final Departure to France

Dupleix was recalled to France because of his political ambitions (a reiteration of the events for his recall is not required here because scholars have researched on this topic and many interpretations are available regarding this event in French Indian history). They went back to France, and Madame Dupleix had written a letter to her dear friend Madame Mousse on 13 February 1756, where she wrote to her saying that she felt strange in this new city, that the memories of Pondicherry were painful and that her heart would always be with that city. In another letter dated 18 November 1756, Madame Dupleix expresses to her friend that she was determined to return to Pondicherry and live there for the rest of her life. ⁶⁰ Thus, this shows how much Madame Dupleix was well connected with her roots in India. Socially and culturally, she leaned more towards her Indian side than the French culture.

Unfortunately, towards the end of 1756, her health began to deteriorate, but, even then till her last breath, she did not want to see her husband suffer. While they went back to France, the cost of living had deepened their pockets and they could no longer upkeep their lavish lifestyle. She wrote letters to M. de Moras, the Contrôleur general des Finances, negotiating with her skilful words on behalf of Dupleix to reimburse them for their expenditure towards the French cause in India. ⁶¹ However, her requests fell on deaf ears, and she died in France on 4 December 1756 at the age of fifty.

In conclusion, Madame Martin and Madame Dupleix fostered French colonialism during the age where the Company had just begun to get recognition by its European counterparts. The difference between these two ladies offers a very beautiful insight into the nature of the French administration. We witnessed the early stages of the French East India Company, daring yet uneventful, the first stage of its foundation in Deccan, still shy, timid, with François Martin just getting a hold of the political situation, understanding the scenario and keeping low. This reflects Madame Martin’s attitude as well; her non-interference in the administrative affairs was likely due to its emerging nature. Madame Martin, a Parisian women, who was new to the environment, could not be expected to interfere in the administration. She was happy to fulfil her role as a moral supporter to her husband.

The eighteenth century, on the other hand, was filled with adventures for the French Company. This is reflected in the actions of Madame Dupleix. As the Company changed its policies with the developing scenes of the Indian scenario, the drastic steps taken by Dupleix in changing the course of French history naturally excited Madame Dupleix. Apart from that, Madame Dupleix, who was born and brought up in India, studied the political situation; her familiarity with the administrative set-up put her right at the centre of the administrative affairs. She proved to be useful to Dupleix, who in the event would always look up to her for advice. She was criticised by Ananda Ranga Pillai and Abdul Rahman for poking her nose in the affairs of her husband. Madame Dupleix was born in an age where religion played a crucial role in her life. Religion was both a formula and an entertainment. Living in a country and at a time when public spectacle or shows of any kind were extremely scarce, devotional practices and church festivals supplied the only amusement. Hence, her friendly alliance with the missionaries kept her occupied. Nonetheless, she was a strong independent woman who took matters into her own hands. However, she was rewarded for her efforts by an eviction to a strange land where she died a lonely death.