Orthodox descriptions and treatment of Africa's HIV/AIDS crisis are subject to robust controversy among research experts and clinicians who raise questions about the tests used to define the crisis, the statistics used to document the crisis, and the drugs marketed to curtail it. Despite this critical scientific corpus, fanciful misconceptions about chronic illness and mortality in Africa are sustained by ahistorical and apolitical analyses misrepresenting Africans’ contemporary morality, social reality, and public health care needs.
Abudu, A. O.2003. Imported development policies and why they don’t work. In History and philosophy of science for African undergraduates, ed. H. Lauer, vol. I, chapter 9, 165–169. Ibadan, Nigeria: Hope Publications.
2.
Addae, S.1994. Medical education in colonial Ghana and the immediate post-independent years. Paper delivered to the Ghana Academy of Arts and Sciences (Accra), March (prepublication manuscript).
3.
Addae-Mensah, I.2000. Plant biodiversity, herbal medicine, intellectual property rights and industrially developing countries: Socio-economic, ethical and legal implications. In Ghana: Changing values/changing technologies, ed. H. Lauer, 165–182. Washington, DC: The Council for Research on Values and Philosophy.
4.
Ahlberg, B. M.1994. Is there a distinct African sexuality? Acritical response to Caldwell. Africa64(2): 220–242.
5.
Ahrens, E. H.1992. The crisis in clinical research: Overcoming institutional obstacles. New York: Oxford University Press.
6.
Akosa, A. B. 2005. Migration of health workers: Ghana as an index case for developing countries. Presented at the joint Commonwealth/British Medical Association meeting Call to Action: Correcting the Medical Brain Drain Crisis. London, April 13.
7.
Angell, M.2000. Is academic medicine for sale?New England Journal of Medicine, May 18, editorial.
8.
Angell, M.2004. The truth about the drug companies. The New York Review of Books51(12), July 15: 52–58.
9.
Badasu, D. 2004. Urban households coping with child care. Paper presented at the 3rd Annual Conference of the Historical Society of Ghana: Tradition and Modernity in Ghanaian Urbanisation, July 17, University of Ghana, Legon.
10.
Barre-Sinoussi, F., J. C. Chermann, and F. Rey. 1983. Isolation of a T-lymphotropic retrovirus from a patient at risk for acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS). Science220: 868–871.
11.
Bekele, Y.2000. Maternal-foetal HIV trials in Africa: Were the sponsors really concerned about Africa's children?Association of Concerned Africa Scholars Bulletin57/58: 35–40.
12.
Bentwich, Z., A. Kalinkovich, and Z. Weisman. 1995. Immune activation is a dominant factor in the pathogenesis of African AIDS. Immunology Today16(4): 187–191.
13.
Bijlmakers, L., M. Basset, and D. Sanders. 1996. Health and structural adjustment in rural and urban Zimbabwe, Research Report no. 101. Uppsala: Nordiska Afrikainstitutet.
14.
Biritwum, R. B.2004. Food shortage and growth of children: Lessons from the 1983 famine. Inaugural lecture delivered November 25, University of Ghana, Legon.
15.
Boehringer Ingelheim Pharmaceuticals, Inc.[2002]2005. Viramune® (trademark of nevirapine) Tablets and oral suspension. Package insert for doctors and patients. Latest issue, January 11.
16.
Brandful, J. A. M.2003. A simplified view of human immunodeficiency virus and its manifestation in Ghana. Unpublished manuscript. Noguchi Memorial Institute for Medical Research, Legon, Ghana.
17.
Brandful, J. A. M., W. K. Ampofo, F. A. Apeagyei, K. Asare-Bediako, and M. Osei-Kwasi. 1997. Predominance of HIV type-1 among AIDS and AIDS related complex patients in Ghana, West Africa. East African Medical Journal74: 17–20.
18.
Brandful, J. A. M., F. A. Apeagyei, W. K. Ampofo et al. 1999. The relationship between immunoclinical status and prevalence of viral sexually transmitted diseases among HIV-1 seropositive patients in Ghana. Journal of Viral Immunology12(2): 131–137.
19.
Brewer, D. D., J. Brody, E. Drucker, D. Gissequist, S. F. Minkin, J. J. Potterat, S. Brody, R. B. Rothenberg, and F. Vachon. 2003. Mounting anomalies in the epidemiology of HIV in Africa: Cry the beloved paradigm. International Journal of STD and AIDS14: 144–147.
20.
Caldwell, J. C., P. Caldwell, J. Anarfi, K. Awusabo-Asare, J. Ntozi, I. O. Orubuloye, J. Marck, W. Cosford, R. Colombo, and E. Hollings, eds. 1999. Resistances to behavioural change to reduce HIV/AIDS infection in predominantly heterosexual epidemics in third world countries. Canberra: National Centre for Epidemiology and Population Health, Australian National University.
21.
Canadian Laboratory of Center for Diseases Control. 1999. Annual HIV and AIDS in Canada surveillance report, April.
22.
Canadian Laboratory of Center for Diseases Control. 2004. HIV and AIDS in Canada: Surveillance report to December 31, 2003, April.
23.
Catania, J. A., D. Binson, M. M. Dolcini, R. Stall, K. H. Choi, L. M. Pollack, E. S. Hudes, J. Canchola, K. Phillips, J. T. Moskowitz et al. 1995. Risk factors for HIV and other sexually transmitted diseases and prevention practices among U.S. heterosexual adults: Changes from 1990 to 1992. American Journal of Public Health85(11), Fall: 1492–1499.
24.
Cattelan, A., E. Erne, A. Salatino et al. 1999. Severe hepatic failure related to nevirapine treatment. Clinical Infectious Disease29: 455–456.
25.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 1987. Mortality and Morbidity Weekly Report36: 509–515.
26.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 2001a. Serious adverse events attributed to nevirapine regimens for post-exposure prophylaxis after HIV exposures. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report49–51, 1153–1156.
27.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 2001b. Nevirapine (Viramune®) is FDA pregnancy category C. In Guidelines for the use of antiretroviral agents in HIV-infected adults and adolescents. U.S. Public Health Service, February 5. Available online at http://www.hivaits.org.
28.
Chossudovsky, M.1997. The globalisation of poverty: Impacts of the IMF and World Bank reforms. New York: Zed Books.
29.
Clapp, D.1998. District court judgment on petition for child protection order in re: Nikolas Emerson, State of Maine, Newport District Court Civil Action Docket No. NEW-98-PC-17. Entered on the docket September 14.
30.
Cohen, J.1994a. The epidemic in Thailand: Reviewing the data III: Special news report. Science266, December 9: 1647-1647.
31.
Cohen, J.1994b. Could drugs, rather than a virus, be the cause of AIDS?Science266, December 9: 1648–1649
32.
Concorde Coordinating Committee. 1994. Concorde: MRC/ANRS randomised double-blind controlled trial of immediate and deferred zidovudine in symptom-free HIV infection. The Lancet343, April 9: 871–881.
33.
Craddock, M.1996. HIV: Science by press conference. In AIDS: Virus or drug-induced?,ed. P. H. Duesberg, 127–130. Netherlands: Kluwer Academic Publishers.
34.
De Harven, E.1998. Pioneer deplores “HIV”—maintaining errors is evil. Continuum(London)5(2): 24-24.
35.
De Harven, E.1998. Retroviruses: The recollections of an electron microscopist. Reappraising AIDS6 (11 & 12) (Nov./Dec.): 4–7.
36.
De Van Niekerk, J. P.2003. AIDS: A systemic misunderstanding. South African Medical Journal93(7), July, editorial.
37.
De Vicenza, I.1994. European study group on heterosexual transmission of HIV. New England Journal of Medicine331: 341–346.
38.
Duesberg, P. H.1993. Can epidemiology determine whether drugs or HIV cause AIDS?AIDS-Forschung12: 627–635.
39.
Duesberg, P. H.1996a. AIDS: Virus or drug-induced?Netherlands: Kluwer Academic Publishers.
40.
Duesberg, P. H.1996b. Inventing the AIDS virus. Washington, DC: Regnery.
41.
Duesberg, P., and H. Bialy. 1995. HIV an illusion. Letter, Nature375: 197-197.
42.
Duesberg, P. H., C. Köhnlein, and D. Rasnick. 2003. The chemical bases of the various AIDS epidemics: Recreational drugs, anti-viral chemotherapy and malnutrition. Journal of Bioscience28(4), June: 383–412. Available online at http://www.ias.ac.in/jbiosci/jun2003/383.htm.
43.
Duesberg, P., and D. Rasnick. 1998. The AIDS dilemma: Drug diseases blamed on a passenger virus. Genetica104: 85–132.
44.
Durex. 1997. Global sex survey. London. Available online at http://www.durex.com.
45.
Eastman, P. S., D. E. Shapiro, R. W. Coombs, L. M. Frenkel, G. D. McSherry, P. Britto, S. A. Herman, and R. S. Sperling. 1998. Maternal viral genotypic zidovudine resistance and infrequent failure of zidovudine therapy to prevent perinatal transmission of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 in pediatric AIDS clinical trials group protocol 076. Journal of Infectious Diseases177: 557–564.
46.
Ekeh, P.1975. Colonialism and the two publics: A theoretical statement. Comparative Studies in Society and History17: 91–112.
47.
Ely, E.2000. Protease inhibitors kill all HIV but do not cure AIDS. Townsend Letter for Doctors and Patients207, October: 77–80. Available online at http://www.tldp.net.
48.
Epstein, S.1996. Impure science: AIDS, activism and the politics of knowledge. Berkeley: University of California Press.
49.
Farber, C.1998a. AZT roulette. Mothering, September–October: 53–55.
50.
Farber, C.1998b. HIV and breastfeeding. Mothering, September–October: 19–24.
51.
Farber, C.2002. Fear and loathing in Geneva: Some reflections on the sorry state of AIDS journalism. Spin Magazine, October.
52.
Farber, C.2005. Columns and views: New York Press17(52), December 28, 2004. http://www.nypress.com/print.cfm?content_id=11845.
53.
Fawzi, W. W., G. I. Msamanga, D. Spiegelman, E. J. N. Urassa, and D.J. Hunter. 1998. Randomized trial of effects of vitamin supplements on pregnancy outcomes and T cell counts in HIV-1 infected women in Tanzania. The Lancet351, May 16: 1477–1482.
54.
Fiala, C.2000. AIDS in Africa: The way forward. May. Available online at http://www.virusmyth.net.
55.
Fiala, C.1998. Dirty tricks with AIDS figures. New African, April: 36–38. Available online at http://www.virusmyth.net.
56.
Fleming, R., and D. L. DeMets. 1996. Surrogate end points in clinical trials: Are we being misled?Annals of Internal Medicine125(7), October 1: 605–613.
57.
Geshekter, C. L.1995. Outbreak? AIDS, Africa, and the medicalization of poverty. Transition: Harvard University International Review Journal series 67, 5(3), Fall: 4–14.
58.
Geshekter, C. L.1997. A good turn for Africa, please. The Lancet, June 11: 69-69.
59.
Geshekter, C. L.2000a. Book review of East African doctorsby John Illife. Africa Today47(1): 144–147.
60.
Geshekter, C. L.2000b. The plague that isn’t. Toronto Globe and Mail, March 14.
61.
Geshekter, C. L.2000c. The medicalization of poverty. African Agenda3(2), April/May: 11–13.
62.
Geshekter, C. L.2003. A critical reappraisal of African AIDS research and Western sexual stereotypes. In History and philosophy of science for African undergraduates, ed. H. Lauer, vol. 1, chap. 3, 75–109. Ibadan, Nigeria: Hope Publications.
63.
Geshekter, C. L., D. M. Mhlongo, and C. Köhnlein. 2004. AIDS, medicine and public health: The scientific value of Thabo Mbeki's critique of AIDS orthodoxy. Paper presented at the 47 thAnnual Meeting of the African Studies Association, November 11, New Orleans, LA.
64.
Geshekter, C. L., and M. Turshen. 2000. Deconstructing the health/AIIDS/drugs debates. Association of Concerned Africa Scholars Bulletin57/58: 13–15.
65.
Gilman, S. L.1985. Black bodies, white bodies: Toward an iconography of female sexuality in late 19 thcentury art, medicine, and literature. In “Race,” writing and difference, ed. H. L. Gates, 221–250. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
66.
Giraldo, R.2003. Reply to editorial, “AIDS: A systemic misunderstanding.” South African Medical Journal93(7), July.
67.
Giraldo, R.2003. The causes of AIDS. Available online at http://robertogiraldo.com/eng/papers/TheCausesOfAids.html.
68.
Giraldo, R. A., M. Ellner, C. Farber, B. J. Weiss, F. R. Buianouckas, T. DiFerdnando, R. Vagg, and E. A. Lieb. 1999. Is it rational to treat or prevent AIDS with toxic antiretroviral drugs in pregnant women, infants, children and anybody else? The answer is negative. Continuum(London) 5(5/6), Summer: 38–52.
69.
Gisselquist, D., J. Potterat, R. Rothenberg, E. Drucker, S. Brody, D. Brewer, and S. Minkin. 2003a. Let it be sexual: How health care transmission of AIDS in Africa was ignored. International Journal of STD and AIDS14: 148–216.
70.
Gisselquist, D., J. J. Potterat, S. Brody, and F. Vachon. 2003b. Heterosexual transmission of HIV in Africa: An empiric estimate. International Journal of STD and AIDS14: 162–173.
71.
Gray, R. H., M. J. Wawer, N. Kiwanuka, D. Serwadda, N. K. Sewankambo, and F. W. Mangen. 2001. HIV transmission probability in Uganda comparable to USA: HIV infectivity cannot explain the explosive epidemic in Africa. Paper presented at the Eighth Conference on Retroviruses and Opportunistic Infections, Chicago, IL.
72.
Guay, L., P. Musoke, T. Fleming et al. 1999. Intrapartum and neonatal single-dose nevirapine compared with zidovudine for prevention of mother-to-child transmission of HIV-1 in Kampala, Uganda. Lancet354: 795–802.
73.
Gyekye, K.1997. Tradition and modernity. New York: Oxford University Press.
74.
Hagan, G. P.2000. Modern technology, traditional mysticism and ethics in Akan culture. In Ghana: Changing values/changing technologies, Cultural Heritage and Contemporary Change Series II Africa volume 5, ed. H. Lauer, 31–52. Washington, DC: Council for Research on Values and Philosophy.
75.
Harrison, R., and K. Corbett. 1999. Screening of pregnant women for HIV: The case against. The Practising Midwife2(7), Summer: 24–29.
76.
Hässig, A., H. Kremer, S. Lanka, W-X. Liang, and K. Stampfli. 1998. 15 Years of AIDS. Continuum5(3), May: 32–37. Available online at http://virusmyth.net/aids/data/ah15years.htm.
77.
Ho, D. D.1995. Rapid turnover of plasma virions and CD4 lymphocytes in HIV-1 infection. Nature373: 123–126.
78.
Hodgkinson, N.1996. Cry, beloved country: How Africa became the victim of a non-existent epidemic of HIV/AIDS. In AIDS: Virus or drug-induced?,ed. P. H. Duesberg, 347–358. Netherlands: Kluwer Academic Publishers.
79.
Hornsy, J., E. Katabira, D. Kabatesi, F. Mubiru, L. Kwamya, C. Tusaba, S. Kasolo, D. Mwebe, L. Ssetamu, M. Okello, and R. King. 1999. Evaluating herbal medicine for the management of herpes zoster in human immunodeficiency virus infected patients in Kampala, Uganda. Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine5(6): 553–555.
80.
Horton, R.1996. The truth and heresy about AIDS. The New York Review of Books, May 23: 14–20.
81.
Hunter, S., and J. Williamson. 1998. Children on the brink: Strategies to support children isolated by HIV/AIDS. Washington, DC: USAID.
82.
International Monetary Fund. 1994. Trends in developing countries. Washington, DC: World Bank.
83.
JanMohamed, A. R.1985. The economy of Manichean allegory: The function of racial difference in colonialist literature. In “Race,” writing, and difference, ed. H. L. Gates, 78–106. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
84.
Johnson, C.1996. Whose antibodies are they anyway?Continuum4(3), September/October: 4.
85.
Johnson, C.2003. Why the “AIDS test” doesn’t work in Africa. In History and philosophy of science for African undergraduates, vol. 1, chap. 4, part IV, ed. H. Lauer, 110–113, reprinted from Rethinking AIDS9(1), January: 1–4.
86.
Johnson, S., J. G. Baraboutis, B. E. Sha, L. A. Proia, and H. A. Kessler. 2000. Adverse effects associated with use of nevirapine in HIV postexposure for 2 health care workers. Letter. JAMA284: 2722–2723.
87.
Johnston, R., M. Irwin, and D. Crowe, eds. 2003. H.E.A.L.'s rebuttal to the NIAID/NIH report: The evidence that HIV causes AIDS, updated Nov. 29, 2001. Available online at http://www.niaid.nih.gov/factsheets/evidhiv.htm. Revised edition (March 7) available online athttp://www.virusmyth.net.
88.
Judah, T.2004. Uganda: The secret war. The New York Review of Books60(14), September 23: 62–64.
89.
Kaleeba, N., J. N. Kadowe, D. Kalinaki, and G. Williams. 2000. Open secret: People facing up to HIV and AIDS in Uganda. Strategies for Hope Series, 15, July. London: ACTIONAID.
90.
Kashala, O., R. Marlink, M. Ilunga, M. Diese, B. Gormus, K. Xu, P. Mukeba, K. Kasongo, and M. Essex. 1994. Infection with HIV-1 and human T cell lymphotropic viruses among leprosy patients and contacts. Journal of Infectious Diseases169, February: 296–304.
91.
Kitange, H., H. Machibya, J. Black, D. M. Mtasiwa, G. Masuki, D. Whiting, N. Unwin, C. Moshiro, P. M. Klima, M. Lewanga, K. G. Alberti, and D. G. McLarty. 1997. Outlook for survivors of childhood in sub-Saharan Africa: Adult mortality in Tanzania. British Medical Journal312, January 27: 216–217.
92.
Kremer, H., S. Larka, and A. Hässig. 1996. AIDS: Death by prescription. ContinuumJuly/August. Retrieved October 15, 1998 from http://members.aol.com/mleiwissen/klhprot.thm.
93.
Kumar, R., P. F. Hughes, and A. Khurranna. 1994. Zidovudine use in pregnancy: A report on 104 cases and the occurrence of birth defects. Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome7: 1034–1039.
94.
Lang, S.[1995]1996. To fund or not to fund: Proposed experiments on the drug-AIDS hypothesis. Yale Scientific Magazine, Winter. Reprinted in AIDS: Virus or drug-induced?,ed. P. H. Duesburg, 297–307.
95.
Lang, S.. 1998. The case of HIV and AIDS and the Gallo case. Challenges: 333–565, 605–714. New York: Springer-Verlag.
96.
Lang, S.. [1999]2003. Questions of professional responsibility in the scientific research community. In History and philosophy of science for African undergraduates, vol. 1, chap. 2, Part III, ed. H. Lauer, 57–72. Reprinted from Yale Scientific Magazine, Spring, 72: 9–19.
97.
Lauer, H., ed. 2003a. The orthodox theory of how HIV causes AIDS. In History and philosophy of science for African undergraduates, vol. I, chap. 4, Part I, ed. H. Lauer, 95–96. Ibadan, Nigeria: Hope Publications.
98.
Lauer, H., ed. 2003b. Tradition and modernity: Reappraisal of a false dichotomy. Hope Library of Liberal Arts2. Ibadan, Nigeria: Hope Publications.
99.
Lauer, H., ed. 2004. Causes and effects of knowledge traditions: Modern scientific discourse and the regression of science and technology in Ghana. Transactions of the Ghana Historical Society8: 261–280.
100.
Lenderking, W. R., R. D. Gelber, D. J. Cotton, B. F. Cole, A. Goldhirsch, P. A. Volbering, and M. A. Testa. 1994. Evaluation of the quality of life associated with zidovudine treatment in asymptomatic human immunodeficiency virus infection. New England Journal of Medicine330: 738–743.
101.
Levy, J., A. D. Hoffman, S. M. Kramer, J. A. Landis, J. M. Shimabukuro, L. S. Oshiro. 1984. Isolation of lymphocytopathic retroviruses from San Francisco patients with AIDS. Science225: 840–842.
102.
Malan, R.2003. Africa isn’t dying of AIDS. The Spectator, December 27 (London).
103.
Malan, R.2002. Megadeath and megahype. San Francisco Chronicle, January 6.
104.
Manuh, T., R. Asante, and J. Djangmah. 2004. The brain drain in the higher education sector in Ghana. In At home in the world: International migration and development in contemporary Ghana and West Africa, ed. T. Manuh, 250-276. Accra, Ghana: Sub-Saharan Press.
105.
McCormick, J. B., and S. Fisher-Hoch. 1996. Level 4: Virus hunters of the CDC. Atlanta: Turner Publishing.
106.
Moore, H. L.1988. Feminism and anthropology. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota.
107.
Mulder, D. W., A. J. Nunn, A. Kamali, J. Nakyingi, H. U. Wagner, and J. F. Kengeya-Kayondo. 1994. Two-year HIV-1-associated mortality in a Ugandan rural population. The Lancet343, April 23: 1021–1023.
108.
National Institute of Health. 1996. December surveillance report, fact sheet: The evidence that HIV causes AIDS, CDC definitions. Available online at http://www.niaid.nih.gov/factsheets/evidhiv.htm.
109.
Neequaye, A. R., J. A. A. Mingle, J. E. Neequaye, V. K. Agadzi, V. Nettey, M. Osei-Kwasi, M. Hayami, K. Ishakawa, G. Ankrah-Badu, C. Bentsi, A. AsamoahAdu, S. E. Aggrey, W. Ampofo, J. A. M. Brandful, and R. J. Biggar. 1987. A report on HIV infection in Ghana up to December 1986. Sexual habits and social factors in local Ghanaian prostitutes which could affect the spread of HIV. Ghana Medical Journal21(1), September: 7–15.
110.
Newburg, D. S., R. J. Linhardt, S. A. Ampofo, and R. H. Yolken. 1998. Human milk glycosaminoglycans inhibit HIV glycoprotein gp120 binding to its host cell CD4 receptor. Nutrition Today32(5): 191–201.
111.
Newburg, D. S., and J. M. Street. 1998. Bioactive materials in human milk: Milk sugars sweeten the argument for breastfeeding. Journal of Nutrition125: 419–424.
112.
Nugent, P.2004. Africa since independence. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
113.
Packard, R. M.1989. White plague, black labor: Tuberculosis and the political economy of health and disease in South Africa. London: James Currey Publishers.
114.
Packard, R. M.1992. Industrialization, rural poverty, and tuberculosis in South Africa, 1850–1950. In The social basis of health and healing in Africa, ed. S. Feierman and J. M. Janzen, 120–135. Berkeley: University of California Press.
115.
Padian, N., S. Shiboski, S. Glass, and E. Vitlinghoff. 1997. Heterosexual transmission of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) in Northern California: Results from a ten year study. American Journal of Epidemiology146: 350–357.
116.
Pakker, N. G., D. W. Notermans, R. J. DeBoer, M. T. L. Roos, F. DeWolf, A. Hill, J. M. Leonard, S. A. Daner, F. Miedema, and P. T. A. Schellekens. 1998. Biphasic kinetics of peripheral blood T cells after triple combination therapy in HIV-1 infection: A composite of redistribution and proliferation. Nature Medicine4: 208–214.
117.
Papadopulos-Eleopulos, E., V. F. Turner, and J. M. Papadimitriou. 1993a. Has Gallo proven the role of HIV in AIDS?Emergency Medicine5: 113–147.
118.
Papadopulos-Eleopulos, E., V. Turner, and J. Papadimitriou. 1993b. Is a positive Western blot proof of HIV infection?Bio/Technology11: 696–702.
119.
Papadopulos-Eleopulos, E.1995a. AIDS in Africa: Distinguishing fact and fiction. World Journal of Microbiology and Biotechnology11: 135–143.
120.
Papadopulos-Eleopulos, E., V. F. Turner, J. M. Papadimitriou, B. Hedland-Thomas, D. Causer, and B. Page. 1995b. A critical analysis of the HIV-T4-cell-AIDS hypothesis. Genetica95(1): 5–24.
121.
Papadopulos-Eleopulos, E., V. F. Turner, J. M. Papadimitriou, and D. Causer. 1996. The isolation of HIV: Has it really been achieved: The case against. Continuum(London) 4(6): S1–S24.
122.
Papadopulos-Eleopulos, E. et al. 1998. A critical analysis of the evidence for the existence of HIV and the HIV antibody tests. Presented at the 12 thWorld AIDS Conference, June 28, Geneva, http://www.virusmyth.com/aids/perthgroup/geneva(accessed December 7, 2005).
123.
Papadopulos-Eleopulos, E., V. F. Turner, J. M. Papadimitriou, D. Causer, H. Alphonso, and T. Miller. 1999. A critical analysis of the pharmacology of AZT and its use in AIDS. Current Medical Research and Opinion15(1).
124.
Papadopulos-Eleopulos, E., F. Turner, J. M. Papadimitriou, H. Alphonso, and B. A. Page. 2002. Heterosexual transmission of HIV in Africa is no higher than anywhere else. British Medical Journal324: 1034-1034.
125.
Papovic, M., M. G. Sarngadharan, E. Read, and R. C. Gallo. 1984. Detection, isolation, and continuous production of cytopathic retroviruses (HTLV-III) from patients with AIDS and pre-AIDS. Science224: 497–500.
126.
Patton, C.1990. Inventing African AIDS. Inventing AIDS. New York: Routledge.
127.
Piliero, P. J., and B. Purdy. 2001. Nevirapine-induced hepatitis: A case series and review of the literature. The AIDS Reader11(7): 379–382.
128.
Ponte, S.1995. The World Bank and “adjustment in Africa.” Review of African Political Economy66, December: 539–558.
129.
Presidential AIDS Advisory Panel Report. 2001. Deliberations by the panel of experts invited by the President of the Republic of South Africa, the Hon. Mr. Thabo Mbeki, March. Available online at http://virusmyth.net/aids/data/panel/index.htm.
130.
Price-Smith A. T., and J. L. Daly. 2004. Downward spiral: HIV/AIDS, state capacity and political conflict in Zimbabwe. Washington, DC: U.S. Institute of Peace 53, July.
131.
Rasheed, S., Z. Li, D. Xu, and A. Kovaks. 1996. Presence of cell-free human immunodeficiency virus in cervicovaginal secretions is independent of viral load in the blood of human immunodeficiency virusinfected women. American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology175(1), July: 123.
132.
Reines, B. P.1996. Radiation, chimpanzees and the origin of AIDS. Perspectives in Biology and Medicine39(2), Winter: 187–192.
133.
Richards, R.2001a. On HIV testing. Responses to Dr. Peter J. Flegg and Tony Floyd. Letters to the editor, British Medical Journal, http://virusmyth.net/aids/news.htm (accessed December 7, 2005).
134.
Richards, R.2001b. Why the HIV tests can’t tell you whether you have HIV. Zenger's News Magazine, October, interview by M. G. Conlan. Reprinted June 7, 2002, vol. 20.
135.
Roederer, M.1998. Getting to the HAART of T cell dynamics. Nature Medicine4(2), February: 145–146.
136.
Rosaldo, M. Z.1989. Use and abuse of anthropology: Reflections on feminism and cross-cultural understanding. Signs5(3): 389–417.
137.
Ryder, R. W., T. Manzila, E. Baende, U. Kabagabo, F. Behets, V. Batter, E. Paquot, E. Binyingo, and W. L. Heyward. 1991. Evidence from Zaire that breast-feeding by HIV-1 seropositive mothers is not a major route for perinatal HIV-1 transmission but does decrease morbidity. AIDS5(6): 709–714.
138.
Saba, J.1994. Interim analysis of early efficacy of three short ZDV/3TC combination regimens the human immunodeficiency virus type 1. European-Australian Haemophilia Collaborative Study Group. British Journal of Haematology86: 174–179.
139.
Scheff, L.2004a. HIV negative. Crux Magazine, http://www.cruxmag.com/t_blank (accessed December 7, 2005).
140.
Scheff, L.2004b. Treating poverty with toxic drugs. A compiled interview with Dr. Rodney Richards and Dr. Christian Fiala. Available online at http://www.virusmyth.net;%20http://www.aliveandwell.org.
141.
Schopper, D., S. Doussantousse, and J. Orav. 1993. Sexual behaviours relevant to HIV transmission in a rural African population. Social Science and Medicine37(3), August: 401–412.
142.
Semba, R. D., N. M. Graham, W. T. Caiaffa, J. B. Margolick, L. Clement, and D. Vlahov. 1999. Increased mortality associated with vitamin A deficiency during human immunodeficiency virus type-1 infection. Archive of Internal Medicine153: 2149–2154.
143.
Sempala, S.1988. Evaluation of theWHOclinical case definition for AIDS in Uganda. Journal of the American Medical Association260: 3286–3289.
144.
Setel, P. W., N. Unwin, K. G. M. M. Alberti, and Y. Hemed. 2000. Cause-specific adult mortality: Evidence from community-based surveillance—selected sites, Tanzania, 1992–98. Mortality and Morbidity Weekly Record49(19), May 19: 416–419.
145.
Sidley, P.2002. News: HIV drug under review as firm withdraws FDA application. British Medical Journal324, April 6: 807-807.
146.
Solomon, J.2004a. NIH was warned in ’02 on AIDS drug for Africa. Associated Press, December 14.
147.
Solomon, J.2004b. US officials knew of AIDS drug risks. Associated Press, December 13.
148.
Solomon, J.2005. Profit motive hidden from patients. Associated Press, January 11. Available online at http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2005/01/11/health/main666129.shtml.
149.
Songsore, J., and G. McGranahan. 2003. Womens household environmental caring roles in the greater Accra metropolitan area, a qualitative appraisal. Institute African Studies Research Review19(2): 67–83.
150.
South Africa Department of Health. 1999. Summary report: 1998 national HIV sero-prevalence survey of women attending public antenatal clinics in South Africa. Pretoria: Health Systems Research and Epidemiology, February.
151.
Sperling, R. S., D. E. Shapiro, R. W. Coombs et al. 1996. Maternal viral load, zidovudine treatment, and the risk of transmission of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 from mother to infant. Pediatric AIDS Clinical Trials Group Protocol 076 Study Group. New England Journal of Medicine335: 162–129.
152.
Stamp, P.1989. Gender, power and technology. Ottawa: (IDRC) International Development and Research Centre.
153.
Stiglitz, J. E.2002. Globalization and its discontents. New York: Norton.
154.
Summerfield, D.1999. The politics of apology. The Lancet354, July 31: 421-421.
155.
Tabb, W. K.2002. Debt, AIDS, and todays colonialism. In Unequal partners: A primer on globalization, chapter 3, 86–120. New York: New Press.
156.
THETA. 1999. Innovation or reawakening?Roles of traditional healers in the management and prevention of HIV/AIDS in Uganda, Kampala. Cited in N. Kabeela, J. N. Kadowe, P. Kalinaki, and G. Williams. (2000).
157.
Tornui, J.2005. Tradition vs. modernisation: Impediments to implementing protective legislation for women's health. The Statesman2(45), May 23.
158.
Tripp, M. L.2000. Women and politics in Uganda. Oxford: James Currey Publishers.
159.
Turner, V. F.1997. Interview: Do antibody tests prove HIV infection?Continuum5(2), Winter: 12, 13–17.
160.
Turshen, M.1998. Review of Health and structural adjustment in rural and urban Zimbabwe, by L. Bijlmakers, M. Basset, and D. Sanders (as cited). African Studies Review41(1), April: 182-182.
161.
Uganda AIDS Commission. 1997. Inventory of agencies in HIV/AIDS related activities in Uganda.
162.
UNICEF with Directorate of Information and Mass Mobilization NTMSecretariat and Ministry of Health, Government of Uganda. 1989. Guidelines Commission on the Control of AIDS: Action for survival. Kampala.
163.
USAID/Bureau for Africa. 1995. A strategic framework for setting priorities for research, analysis, and information dissemination on HIV/AIDS, STIs, and tuberculosis in Africa. June, Washington, DC: USAID.
164.
Voorhis, B. J. V., A. Martinez, K. Mayer, and D.J. Anderson. 1991. Detection of human immunodeficiency type I virus in semen from seropositive men using culture and polymerase chain reaction deoxyribonucleic acid amplification techniques. Fertility and Sterility56(3): 588–595.
165.
Wei, X., S. K. Ghosh, M. E. Taylor, V. A. Johnson, E. A. Emini, P. Deutsch, J. D. Lifson, S. Bonhoeffer, M. A. Nowak, B. H. Hahn, M. S. Saag, and G. M. Shaw. 1995. Viral dynamics in human immunodeficiency virus type 1 infection. Nature373: 117–122.
166.
Weniger, B.1991. The epidemiology of HIV infections and AIDS in Thailand. AIDS5: S71-S71.
167.
Whiteside, W., and C. Sunter. 2000. AIDS the challenge for South Africa. Teaching pamphlet. Cape Town: Tafelberg Publishers.
168.
Wilson, F., and M. Ramphele. 1989. Uprooting poverty: The South African challenge. New York: Norton.
169.
Working Group on Antiretroviral Therapy. 2000. Nevirapine (NVP), Viramune: Description, warnings, indications and usage, overdosage. In Guidelines for the use of antiretroviral agents in pediatric HIV infection. Issued January 7. United States National Pediatric HIV Resource Center.
170.
World Health Organization. 1985. Workshop on AIDS in Central Africa. Bangui, CAR. October 2225. Dokument WHO/CDS/AIDS/85.1, Geneva.
171.
World Health Organization. 1986. Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) WHO/CDC case definition for AIDS. Weekly Epidemiological Record61: 69–76.
172.
World Trade Organization. 1999. The legal texts: The results of the Uruguay round of multilateral trade negotiations. New York: Cambridge University Press.
