Psychopathy is commonly viewed as a personality disorder defined by a cluster of interpersonal, affective, lifestyle, and antisocial traits and behaviours, including grandiosity, egocentricity, deceptiveness, shallow emotions, lack of empathy or remorse, irresponsibility, impulsivity, and a tendency to violate social norms. In our article, we outline standard methods for the assessment of psychopathy, its association with antisocial personality disorder (ASPD), and its implications for clinical and forensic issues, including crime and violence, risk assessment, and treatment options.
MillonTSimonsenEBirket-SmithM, editors. Psychopathy: Antisocial, criminal, and violent behaviour. New York (NY): Guilford Press; 1998.
2.
FelthousARSassH. editors. International handbook on psychopathic disorders and the law. New York (NY): John Wiley & Sons, Inc; 2007.
3.
GaconoCB, editor. The clinical and forensic assessment of psychopathy: A practitioner's guide. Mahwah (NJ): Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc; 2000.
4.
HervéHYuilleJ, editors. The psychopath: Theory, research, and practice. Mahwah (NJ): Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc; 2007.
5.
HarrisGTSkillingTARiceME. The construct of psychopathy. Crime Justice. 2001;28:197–264.
6.
MonahanJ.[Comments on book jacket]. In: PatrickCJ, editor. Handbook of psychopathy. New York (NY): Guilford Press; 2006.
7.
PatrickCJ, editor. Handbook of psychopathy. New York (NY): Guilford Press; 2006.
8.
BabiakPHareRD. Snakes in suits: When psychopaths go to work. New York (NY): HarperCollins; 2006.
9.
American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders. 4th ed.Washington (DC): APA; 1994.
10.
FrickPJ. Extending the construct of psychopathy to youth: Implications for understanding, diagnosing, and treating antisocial children and adolescents. Can J Psychiatry. 2009;54(12):803–812.
11.
GaoYGlennALSchugRA. The neurobiology of psychopathy: A neurodevelopmental perspective. Can J Psychiatry. 2009;54(12):813–823.
12.
BerriosGE. The history of mental symptoms: Descriptive psychopathology since the nineteenth century. Cambridge (GB): Cambridge University Press; 1996.
13.
CleckleyH. The mask of sanity. 5th ed.St. Louis (MO): Mosby; 1976.
14.
HareRD. The Hare Psychopathy Checklist—Revised. Toronto (ON): Multi-Health Systems, Inc; 1991.
15.
HervéH.Psychopathy across the ages: A history of the Hare psychopath. In: HervéHYuilleJC, editors. The psychopath: Theory, research, and practice. Mahwah (NJ): Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc; 2007. p 31–55.
16.
LarssonHVidingEPlominR.Callous-unemotional traits and antisocial behavior: Genetic, environmental, and early parenting characteristics. Crim Justice Behav. 2008;35:197–211.
17.
VidingEFrickPJPlominR.Aetiology of the relationship between callous-unemotional traits and conduct problems in childhood. Br J Psychiatry Suppl. 2007;49:S33–S38.
18.
NeumannCSHareRDNewmanJP. The super-ordinate nature of the psychopathy checklist-revised. J Pers Disord. 2007;21:102–117.
19.
NeumannCSVitaccoMJHareRD. Reconstruing the “reconstruction” of psychopathy: A comment on Cooke, Michie, Hart, and Clark. J Pers Disord. 2005;19:624–640.
20.
HareRD. The Hare Psychopathy Checklist—Revised. 2nd ed.Toronto (ON): Multi-Health Systems, Inc; 2003.
21.
FuleroS.Review of the Hare Psychopathy Checklist—Revised. In: ConoleyJCImparaJC, editors. Twelfth mental measurements yearbook. Lincoln (NE): Buros Institute of Mental Measurements; 1995. p 453–454.
22.
AchesonSK. Review of the Hare Psychopathy Checklist—Revised. 2nd ed. In: SpiesRAPlakeBS, editors. The sixteenth mental measurements yearbook. Lincoln (NE): Buros Institute of Mental Measurements; 2005. p 429–431.
23.
HartSDCoxDNHareRD. Manual for the Psychopathy Checklist: Screening Version (PCL:SV). Toronto (ON): Multi-Health Systems, Inc; 1995.
24.
ForthAEKossonDHareRD. The Hare PCL: Youth Version. Toronto (ON): Multi-Health Systems, Inc; 2003.
25.
BookAClarkHForthAE. The Psychopathy Checklist-Revised and the Psychopathy Checklist: Youth Version. In: ArcherR, editor. Forensic uses of clinical assessment instruments. Mahwah (NJ): Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc; 2006. p 147–179.
26.
HareRDNeumannCN. The PCL-R assessment of psychopathy: Development, structural properties, and new directions. In: PatrickC, editor. Handbook of psychopathy. New York (NY): Guilford Press; 2006. p 58–88.
27.
HareRDNeumannCS. Psychopathy as a clinical and empirical construct. Annu Rev Clin Psychol. 2008;4;217–246.
28.
HareRDNeumannCS. Psychopathy. In: BlaneyPMillonT, editors. Oxford textbook of psychopathology. 2nd ed.New York (NY): Oxford University Press; 2009. p 622–650.
29.
EdensJFMarcusDKLilienfeldSO. Psychopathic, not psychopath: Taxometric evidence for the dimensional structure of psychopathy. J Abnorm Psychol. 2006;115:131–144.
30.
GuayJPRuscioJKnightRA. A taxometric analysis of the latent structure of psychopathy: Evidence for dimensionality. J Abnorm Psychol. 2007;116:701–716.
31.
WaltersGDGrayNSJacksonRL. A taxometric analysis of the Psychopathy Checklist: Screening Version (PCL:SV): Further evidence of dimensionality. Psychol Assess. 2007;19:330–339.
32.
MarcusDKLilienfeldSOEdensJF. Is antisocial personality disorder continuous or categorical? A taxometric analysis. Psychol Med. 2006;36:1571–1581.
33.
WidigerTAMullins-SweattSN. Five-factor model of personality disorder: A proposal for DSM-V. Annu Rev Clin Psychol. 2009;5:197–220.
34.
BoltDMHareRDNeumannCS. Score Metric Equivalence of the Psychopathy Checklist-Revised (PCL-R) across criminal offenders in North America and the United Kingdom: A critique of Cooke, Michie, Hart, and Clark (2005) and new analyses. Assessment. 2007;14:44–56.
35.
BoltDMHareRDVitaleJE. A multigroup item response theory analysis of the psychopathy checklist—revised. Psychol Assess. 2004;16:155–168.
36.
CookeDJMichieCHartSD. Assessing psychopathy in the UK: Concerns about cross-cultural generalisability. Br J Psychiatry. 2005;186:335–341.
37.
CookeDJKossonDSMichieC.Psychopathy and ethnicity: Structural, item, and test generalizability of the Psychopathy Checklist—Revised (PCL-R) in Caucasian and African American participants. Psychol Assess. 2001;13:531–542.
38.
SkeemJLEdensJFCampJ. Are there ethnic differences in levels of psychopathy? A meta-analysis. Law Hum Behav. 2004;28:505–527.
39.
SullivanEAAbramowitzCSLopezM. Reliability and construct validity of the psychopathy checklist—revised for Latino, European American, and African American male inmates. Psychol Assess. 2006;18:382–392.
40.
EdensJF. Misuses of the Hare Psychopathy Checklist—Revised in court: Two case examples. J Interpers Violence. 2001;16:1082–1093.
41.
HareRD. The Hare PCL-R: Some issues concerning its use and misuse. Leg Criminol Psychol. 1998;3:101–122.
42.
MurrieDCBoccacciniMTJohnsonJT. Does interrater (dis)agreement on Psychopathy Checklist score in sexually violent predator trials suggest partisan allegiance in forensic evaluations? Law Hum Behav. 2008;32:352–362.
43.
CookeDJMichieC.An item response theory analysis of the Hare Psychopathy Checklist. Psychol Assess. 1997;9:3–13.
NeumannCSKossonDSForthAE. Factor structure of the Hare Psychopathy Checklist: Youth Version in incarcerated adolescents. Psychol Assess. 2006;18:142–154.
46.
HareRDNeumannCS. The role of antisociality in the psychopathy construct: Comment on Skeem & Cooke (2009). Psychol Assess. Forthcoming 2009.
47.
NeumannCSKossonDSSalekinRT. Exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis of the psychopathy construct: Methodological and conceptual issues. In: HervéHYuilleJC, editors. The psychopath: Theory, research, and practice. Mahwah (NJ): Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc; 2007. p 79–104.
48.
LynamDRHoyleRHNewmanJP. The perils of partialling: Cautionary tales from aggression and psychopathy. Assessment. 2006;13:328–341.
49.
HarpurTJHareRD. Psychopathy and violent behaviour: Two factors are better than one. Paper presented at the 99th annual meeting of the American Psychological Association; 1991 August; San Francisco (CA).
50.
SkeemJLMulveyEPGrissoT.Applicability of traditional and revised models of psychopathy to the Psychopathy Checklist: Screening Version. Psychol Assess. 2003;15:41–55.
51.
WalshZKossonDS. Psychopathy and violence: The importance of factor level interactions. Psychol Assess. 2008;20:114–120.
52.
CookeDJMichieCHartSD. Evaluating the Screening Version of the Hare Psychopathy Checklist-Revised (PCL:SV): An item response theory analysis. Psychol Assess. 1999;11:3–13.
53.
GuyLSDouglasKS. Examining the utility of the PCL:SV as a screening measure using competing factor models of psychopathy. Psychol Assess. 2006;18:225–230.
54.
De Oliveira-SouzaRIgnácioFAMollJ. Psychopathy in a civil psychiatric outpatient sample. Crim Justice Behav. 2008;35:427–437.
55.
SteadmanHJSilverEMonahanJ. A classification tree approach to the development of actuarial violence risk assessment tools. Law Hum Behav. 2000;24:83–100.
56.
CoidJUllrichSYangM. Psychopathy in the household population of Great Britain. Int J Law Psychiatry. 2009;32:134–141.
57.
NeumannCSHareRD. Psychopathic traits in a large community sample: Links to violence, alcohol use, and intelligence. J Consult Clin Psychol. 2008;76:893–899.
58.
HillCNeumannCSRogersR.Confirmatory factor analysis of the psychopathy checklist: Screening version in offenders with Axis I disorders. Psychol Assess. 2004;16:90–95.
59.
VitaccoMJNeumannCSJacksonR.Testing a four-factor model of psychopathy and its association with ethnicity, gender, intelligence, and violence. J Consult Clin Psychol. 2005;73:466–476.
60.
JonesSCauffmanEMillerJD. Investigating different factor structures of the psychopathy checklist: Youth version: Confirmatory factor analytic findings. Psychol Assess. 2006;18:33–48.
61.
SalekinRTNeumannCSLeisticoAM. Psychopathy and comorbidity in a young offender sample: Taking a closer look at psychopathy's potential importance over disruptive behavior disorders. J Abnorm Psychol. 2004;113:416–427.
62.
VitaccoMJNeumannCSCaldwellMF. Testing factor models of the Psychopathy Checklist: Youth Version and their association with instrumental aggression. J Pers Assess. 2006;87:74–83.
63.
DolanMCRennieCE. Reliability and validity of the Psychopathy Checklist: Youth Version in a UK sample of conduct disordered boys. Pers Individ Dif. 2006;40:65–75.
64.
McCoyWKEdensJF. Do black and white youths differ in levels of psychopathic traits? A meta-analysis of the Psychopathy Checklist Measures. J Consult Clin Psychol. 2006;74:386–392.
65.
SchrumCLSalekinRT. Psychopathy in adolescent female offenders: An item response theory analysis of the Psychopathy Checklist: Youth Version. Behav Sci Law. 2006;24:39–63.
66.
ForthAEBookAS. Psychopathy in youth: A valid construct. In: HervéHYuilleJC, editors. The psychopath: Theory, research, and practice. Mahwah (NJ): Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc; 2007. p 369–387.
67.
FrickPJ. Using the construct of psychopathy to understand antisocial and violent youth. In: HervéHYuilleJC, editors. The psychopath: Theory, research, and practice. Mahwah (NJ): Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc; 2007. p 343–367.
68.
FrickPJMarseeMA. Psychopathy and developmental pathways to antisocial behavior in youth. In: PatrickCJ, editor. Handbook of psychopathy. New York (NY): Guilford Press; 2006. p 353–374.
69.
LynamDRGudonisL.The development of psychopathy. Annu Rev Clin Psychol. 2005;1:381–407.
70.
SalekinRT. Psychopathy in children and adolescents. In: PatrickCJ, editor. Handbook of psychopathy. New York (NY): Guilford Press; 2006. p 389–414.
71.
VitaccoMJVincentGM. Understanding the downward extension of psychopathy to youth: Implications for risk assessment and juvenile justice. Int J Forensic Ment Health. 2006;5:29–38.
72.
FrickPJHareRD. The antisocial process screening device. Toronto (ON): Multi-Health Systems, Inc; 2001.
73.
LynamDRDerefinkoKJCaspiA. The content validity of juvenile psychopathy: An empirical examination. Psychol Assess. 2007;19:363–367.
74.
LilienfeldSOAndrewsBP. Development and preliminary validation of a self-report measure of psychopathic personality traits in noncriminal populations. J Pers Assess. 1996;66:488–524.
75.
AndershedHKerrMStattinH. Psychopathic traits in non-referred youths: A new assessment tool. In: BlauwESheridanL, editors. Psychopaths: Current international perspectives. The Hague (NL): Elsevier; 2002. p 131–158.
76.
WilliamsKMPaulhusDLHareRD. Capturing the four-factor structure of psychopathy in college students via self-report. J Pers Assess. 2007;88:205–219.
77.
LilienfeldSOFowlerKA. The self-report assessment of psychopathy: Problems, pitfalls, and promises. In: PatrickCJ, editor. Handbook of psychopathy. New York (NY): Guilford Press; 2006. p 107–132.
78.
NathansonCPaulhusDLWilliamsKM. Personality and misconduct correlates of body modification and other cultural deviance markers. J Res Pers. 2006;40:779–802.
79.
BoccacciniMTEpsteinMPoythressN. Self-report measures of child and adolescent psychopathy as predictors of offending in four samples of justice-involved youth. Assessment. 2007;14:361–374.
80.
MaltererMBLilienfeldSONeumannCS. Concurrent validity of the Psychopathic Personality Inventory with offender and community samples. Assessment. Forthcoming 2009.
81.
NeumannCSMaltererMBNewmanJP. Factor structure of the Psychopathic Personality Inventory (PPI): Findings from a large incarcerated sample. Psychol Assess. 2008;20:169–174.
82.
NeumannCSDeclercqF.Latent variable models of the Self-report of Psychopathy-III (SRP-III) Scale across three large diverse samples and replication in an offender sample. Paper presented at the biennial conference of the Society for the Scientific Study of Psychopathy; 2009 April; New Orleans (LA).
83.
PaulhusDL. Laboratory studies with the Self-Report Psychopathy Scale. Paper presented at the biennual conference of the Society for the Scientific Study of Psychopathy; 2009 April; New Orleans (LA).
84.
SchmittDP. Self-reported psychopathy and human mating strategies across 58 nations: Patterns and universals across genders, cultures, and local ecologies. Paper presented at the biennial conference of the Society for the Scientific Study of Psychopathy; 2009 April; New Orleans (LA).
American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders. 4th ed. Text revision. Washington (DC): APA; 2000.
87.
HareRDHartSD. Commentary on antisocial personality disorder: The DSM-IV field trial. In: LivesleyWJ, editor. The DSM-IV personality disorders. New York (NY): Guilford Press; 1995. p 127–134.
88.
LykkenDT. Psychopathic personality: The scope of the problem. In: PatrickC, editor. Handbook of psychopathy. New York (NY): Guilford Press; 2006. p 3–13.
89.
OgloffJRP. Psychopathy/antisocial personality disorder conundrum. Aust N Z J Psychiatry. 2006;40:519–528.
90.
RogersRSalekinRTSewellKW. Prototypical analysis of antisocial personality disorder: A study of inmate samples. Crim Justice Behav. 2000;27:234–255.
91.
WidigerTA. Psychopathy and DSM-IV psychopathology. In: PatrickCJ, editor. Handbook of psychopathy. New York (NY): Guilford Press; 2006. p 156–171.
American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders. 3rd ed.Washington (DC): APA; 1980.
94.
RobinsLN. Deviant children grown up. Baltimore (MD): Williams & Wilkins; 1966.
95.
RobinsLN. Aetiological implications in studies of childhood histories relating to antisocial personality. In: HareRDSchallingD, editors. Psychopathic behavior: Approaches to research. Chichester (GB): John Wiley & Sons, Inc; 1978. p. 255–271.
96.
HareRD. Psychopathy and antisocial personality disorder: A case of diagnostic confusion. Psychiatr Times. 1996;13:39–40.
97.
WarrenJISouthSC. Comparing the constructs of antisocial personality disorder and psychopathy in a sample of incarcerated women. Behav Sci Law. 2006;24:1–20.
98.
HareRD. Forty years are not enough: Recollections, random musings, and prognostications. In: HervéHYuilleJC, editors. The psychopath: Theory, research, and practice. Mahwah (NJ): Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc; 2007. p 3–29.
99.
American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders. 3rd ed. Revision. Washington (DC): APA; 1987.
100.
HareRDHartSDHarpurTJ. Psychopathy and the DSM-IV criteria for antisocial personality disorder. J Abnorm Psychol. 1991;100:391–398.
101.
SeabrookJ.Suffering souls: The search for the roots of psychopathy. The New Yorker. 2008 Nov 10.
102.
WestenDWienbergerJ.When clinical description becomes statistical prediction. Am Psychol. 2004;59:595–613.
103.
LivesleyWJJangKL. The behavioral genetics of personality disorder. Annu Rev Clin Psychol. 2008;4:247–274.
104.
ArcherRPBuffington-VollumJKStrednyRV. A survey of psychological test use patterns among forensic psychologists. J Pers Assess. 2006;87:84–94.
105.
LallySJ. What tests are acceptable for use in forensic evaluations? A survey of experts. Prof Psychol Res Pr. 2003;34:491–498.
106.
WalshTWalshZ.The evidentiary introduction of Psychopathy Checklist-Revised assessed psychopathy in US courts: Extent and appropriateness. Law Hum Behav. 2006;30:493–507.
107.
de BoerJWhyteSMadenT.Compulsory treatment of dangerous offenders with severe personality disorders: A comparison of the English DSPD and Dutch TBS systems. J Forensic Psychiatr Psychol. 2008;19:148–163.
108.
ZingerIForthAE. Psychopathy and Canadian criminal proceedings: The potential for human rights abuses. Can J Criminol. 1998;40:237–276.
109.
PorterSPorterS.Psychopathy and violent crime. In: HervéHYuilleJC, editors. The psychopath: Theory, research, and practice. Mahwah (NJ): Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc; 2007. p 287–300.
110.
CornellDGWarrenJHawkG. Psychopathy in instrumental and reactive violent offenders. J Consult Clin Psychol. 1996;64:783–790.
111.
MeloyJR. The “polymorphously perverse” psychopath: Understanding a strong empirical relationship. Bull Menninger Clin. 2002;66:273–290.
112.
PorterSWoodworthM.Psychopathy and aggression. In: PatrickCJ, editor. Handbook of psychopathy. New York (NY): Guilford Press; 2006. p 481–494.
113.
WilliamsonSEHareRDWongS.Violence: Criminal psychopaths and their victims. Can J Behav Sci. 1987;19:454–462.
114.
WoodworthMPorterS.In cold blood: Characteristics of criminal homicides as a function of psychopathy. J Abnorm Psychol. 2002;111:436–445.
115.
MonahanJSteadmanHJ. Violence and mental disorder: Developments in risk assessment. Chicago (IL): University of Chicago Press; 1994.
116.
MonahanJSteadmanHJSilverE. Rethinking risk assessment: The McArthur study of mental disorder and violence. New York (NY): Oxford University Press; 2001.
117.
QuinseyVLHarrisGERiceME. Violent offenders: Appraising and managing risk. 2nd ed.Washington (DC): American Psychological Association; 2006.
118.
HarrisGTRiceME. Characterizing the value of actuarial violence risk assessments. Crim Justice Behav. 2007;34:1638–1658.
119.
QuinseyVLRiceMEHarrisGT. Actuarial prediction of sexual recidivism. J Interpers Violence. 1995;10:85–105.
120.
HiltonNZHarrisGTRiceME. An indepth actuarial assessment for wife assault recidivism: The Domestic Violence Risk Appraisal Guide. Law Hum Behav. 2008;32:150–163.
121.
WebsterCDouglasKEavesD. HCR-20 assessing risk for violence: Version II. Burnaby (BC): Mental Health, Law & Policy Institute, Simon Fraser University; 1997.
122.
BoerDPHartSDKroppPR. Manual for the sexual violence risk—20. Professional guidelines for assessing risk of sexual violence. Vancouver (BC): British Columbia Institute on Family Violence; 1997.
123.
QuinseyVLJonesGBBookAS. The dynamic prediction of antisocial behavior among forensic psychiatric patients. J Interpers Violence. 2006;21:1539–1565.
124.
LeisticoAMSalekinRTDeCosterJ. A meta-analysis relating the Hare measures of psychopathy to antisocial conduct. Law Hum Behav. 2008;32:2–45.
125.
JacksonRLRichardsHJ. Psychopathy and the five-factor model: Self and therapist perceptions of psychopathic personality. Pers Individ Dif. 2007;43:1711–1721.
126.
VeronaEVitaleJ.Psychopathy in women: Assessment, manifestations, and etiology. In: PatrickCJ, editor. Handbook of psychopathy. New York (NY): Guilford Press; 2006. p 415–436.
127.
GrettonHHareRDCatchpoleR.Psychopathy and offending from adolescence to adulthood: A ten-year follow-up. J Consult Clin Psychol. 2004;72:636–645.
DolanMDaviesG.Psychopathy and institutional outcome in patients with schizophrenia in forensic settings in the UK. Schizophr Res. 2006;81:277–281.
130.
DoyleMDolanMMcGovernJ.The validity of North American risk assessment tools in predicting in-patient violent behaviour in England. Legal Criminol Psychol. 2002;7:141–154.
131.
HeilbrunKHartSDHareRD. Inpatient and post-discharge aggression in mentally disordered offenders: The role of psychopathy. J Interpers Violence. 1998;13:514–527.
132.
HillCDRogersRBickfordME. Predicting aggressive and socially disruptive behavior in a maximum security forensic psychiatric hospital. J Forensic Sci. 1996;41:56–59.
133.
LincolnTMHodginsS.Is lack of insight associated with physically aggressive behavior among people with schizophrenia living in the community? J Nerv Ment Dis. 2008;196:62–66.
134.
RiceMEHarrisGT. A comparison of criminal recidivism among schizophrenic and nonschizophrenic offenders. Int J Law Psychiatry. 1992;15:397–408.
135.
TengströmAGrannMLångströmN. Psychopathy (PCL-R) as a predictor of violent recidivism among criminal offenders with schizophrenia. Law Hum Behav. 2000;24:45–58.
136.
TengströmAHodginsSGrannM. Schizophrenia and criminal offending: The role of psychopathy and substance use disorders. Crim Justice Behav. 2004;31:367–391.
137.
TengströmAHodginsSMüller-IsbernerR. Predicting violent and antisocial behavior in hospital using the HCR-20: The effect of diagnoses on predictive accuracy. Int J Forensic Ment Health. 2006;5:39–53.
138.
GrayNSFitzgeraldSTaylorJ. Predicting future reconviction in offenders with intellectual disabilities: The predictive efficacy of VRAG, PCL:SV and the HCR-20. Psychol Assess. 2007;19:474–479.
139.
SwoggerMTWalshZKossonDS. Domestic violence and psychopathic traits: Distinguishing the antisocial batterer from other antisocial offenders. Aggress Behav. 2007;33:1–8.
140.
SpidelAVincentGHussMT. The psychopathic batterer: Subtyping perpetrators of domestic violence. In: HervéHYuilleJC, editors. The psychopath: Theory, research, and practice. Mahwah (NJ): Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc; 2007. p 327–340.
141.
KronerDGMillsJFReddonJR. A coffee can, factor analysis, and prediction of antisocial behavior: The structure of criminal risk. Int J Law Psychiatry. 2005;28:360–374.
142.
CookeDJMichieCRyanJ.Evaluating risk for violence: A preliminary study of the HCR-20, PCL-R and VRAG in a Scottish prison population. Scott Prison Serv Occas Pap Ser. 2001;5.
143.
DahleKP. Strengths and limitations of actuarial prediction of criminal reoffence in a German prison sample: A comparative study of LSI-R, HCR-20 and PCL-R. Int J Law Psychiatry. 2006;29:431–442.
144.
DoyleMDolanMMcGovernJ.The validity of North American risk assessment tools in predicting in-patient violent behaviour in England. Leg Criminol Psychol. 2002;7:141–154.
145.
PhamTHDucroCMaghemB. Évaluation du risque de récidive au sein d'une population de délinquants incarcérés ou internés en Belgique francophone [Prediction of recidivism among prison inmates and forensic patients in Belgium]. Ann Med Psychol (Paris). 2005;163:842–845.
146.
SjöstedtGLångströmN.Assessment of risk for criminal recidivism among rapists: A comparison of four different measures. Psychol Crime Law. 2002;8:25–40.
147.
EdensJFSkeemJLDouglasKS. Incremental validity analyses of the Violence Risk Appraisal Guide and the Psychopathy Checklist: Screening Version in a civil psychiatric sample. Assessment. 2006;13:368–374.
148.
TengströmA.Long-term predictive validity of historical factors in two risk assessment instruments in a group of violent offenders with schizophrenia. Nord J Psychol. 2001;55:243–249.
149.
PorterSFairweatherDDruggeJ. Profiles of psychopathy in incarcerated sexual offenders. Crim Justice Behav. 2000;27:216–233.
150.
PorterSten BrinkeLWilsonK.Crime profiles and conditional release performance of psychopathic and non-psychopathic sexual offenders. Leg Criminol Psychol. 2009;14:109–118.
151.
RiceMEHarrisGTLangC. Violent sex offenses: How are they best measured from official records? Law Hum Behav. 2006;30:525–541.
152.
HarrisGTRiceMEQuinseyVL. A multisite comparison of actuarial risk instruments for sex offenders. Psychol Assess. 2003;15:413–425.
153.
PorterSWoodworthMEarleJ. Characteristics of sexual homicides committed by psychopathic and non-psychopathic offenders. Law Hum Behav. 2003;27:459–470.
154.
HareRDCookeDJHartSD. Psychopathy and sadistic personality disorder. In: MillonTBlaneyPHDavisRD, editors. Oxford textbook of psychopathology. New York (NY): Oxford University Press; 1999. p 555–584.
155.
OchbergFMBrantleyACHareRD. Lethal predators: Psychopathic, sadistic, and sane. Int J Emerg Ment Health. 2003;5:121–136.
156.
StoneMH. The personalities of murderers: The importance of psychopathy and sadism. In: SkodolAE, editor. Psychopathology and violent crime: A review of psychiatry. Washington (DC): American Psychiatric Press; 1998. p 29–52.
157.
StoneMHButlerJRYoungKM. Sadistic personality disorder. In: BlaneyPMillonT, editors. Oxford textbook of psychopathology. 2nd ed.New York (NY): Oxford University Press; 2009. p 651–670.
158.
JacksonRLHessDT. Evaluation for civil commitment of sex offenders: A survey of experts. Sex Abuse. 2007;19:425–448.
159.
MercadoCCOgloffJRP. Risk and the preventive detention of sex offenders in Australia and the United States. Int J Law Psychiatry. 2007;30:49–59.
160.
RiceMEHarrisGT. Cross-validation and extension of the Violence Risk Appraisal Guide for child molesters and rapists. Law Hum Behav. 1997;21:231–241.
161.
HarrisAJRHansonRK. Supervising the psychopathic sex deviant in the community. Paper presented at the 17th Annual Research and Treatment Conference, The Association for the Treatment of Sexual Abusers; 1998 October; Vancouver (BC).
162.
HildebrandMde RuiterCde VogelV.Psychopathy and sexual deviance in treated rapists: Association with sexual and non-sexual recidivism. Sex Abuse. 2004;16:1–24.
163.
SerinRCMaillouxDLMalcolmPB. Psychopathy, deviant sexual arousal, and recidivism among sexual offenders. J Interpers Violence. 2001;16:234–246.
164.
GrettonHMcBrideMHareRD. Psychopathy and recidivism in adolescent sex offenders. Crim Justice Behav. 2001;28:427–449.
165.
LoganMHareRD. Criminal psychopathy: An introduction for police. In: St-YvesMTanguayM, editors. Psychology of criminal investigation. Cowansville (QC): Editionsyvonblais; 2008. p 393–442.
NeumannCSVitaccoMJ. Psychopathy and symptoms of psychopathology in the prediction of latent variable growth in violence. Paper presented at the Society for Research in Psychopathology; 2004 October; St Louis (MO).
168.
HarrisGTRiceME. Treatment of psychopathy: A review of empirical findings. In: PatrickCJ, editor. Handbook of psychopathy. New York (NY): Guilford Press; 2006. p 555–572.
169.
HarrisGTRiceME. Psychopathy research at Oak Ridge: Skepticism overcome. In: HervéHYuilleJC, editors. The psychopath: Theory, research, and practice. Mahwah (NJ): Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc; 2007. p 57–76.
170.
WongSBurtG.The heterogeneity of incarcerated psychopaths: Differences in risk, need, recidivism, and management approaches. In: HervéHYuilleJC, editors. The psychopath: Theory, research, and practice. Mahwah (NJ): Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc; 2007. p 461–484.
171.
ThorntonDBludL.The influence of psychopathic traits on response to treatment. In: HervéHYuilleJC, editors. The psychopath: Theory, research, and practice. Mahwah (NJ): Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc; 2007. p 505–539.
172.
BlairRJR. The cognitive neuroscience of psychopathy and implications for judgments of responsibility. Neuroethics. 2008;1:149–157.
173.
KiehlKA. A cognitive neuroscience perspective on psychopathy: Evidence for paralimbic system dysfunction. Psychiatry Res. 2006;142:107–128.
174.
WongSHareRD. Guidelines for a psychopathy treatment program. Toronto (ON): Multi-Health Systems, Inc; 2005.
175.
WongSCGordonAGuD.Assessment and treatment of violence-prone forensic clients: An integrated approach. Br J Psychiatry Suppl. 2007;49:S66–S74.
176.
AndrewsDABontaJ. The psychology of criminal conduct. 3rd ed.Cincinnati (OH): Anderson; 2003.
177.
AttrillG.The development and implementation of a treatment programme for violent psychopathic offenders. Paper presented at the Bergen International Conference on the Treatment of Psychopathy; 2004 November; Bergen (NO).
178.
LangtonCMBarbareeHEHarkinsL. Sex offenders' response to treatment and its association with recidivism as a function of psychopathy. Sex Abuse. 2006;18:99–120.
179.
DorenDMYatesPM. Effectiveness of sex offender treatment for psychopathic sexual offenders. Int J Offender Ther Comp Criminol. 2008;52:234–245.
180.
OlverMEWongSC. Therapeutic responses of psychopathic sexual offenders: Treatment attrition, therapeutic change, and long-term recidivism. J Consult Clin Psychol. 2009;77:328–336.
181.
CaldwellMFSkeemJSalekinR. Treatment response of adolescent offenders with psychopathy features: A 2-year follow-up. Crim Justice Behav. 2006;33:571–596.
182.
ForthAEBookAS. Psychopathy in youth: A valid construct? In: HervéHYuilleJC, editors. The psychopath: Theory, research, and practice. Mahwah (NJ): Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc; 2007. p 369–387.
183.
CatchpoleREHGrettonHM. The predictive validity of risk assessment with violent young offenders: A 1-year examination of criminal outcome. Crim Justice Behav. 2003;30:688–708.
184.
WilsonJQHerrnsteinRJ. Crime and human nature. New York (NY): Simon & Schuster; 1985. p 198.