Individual Differences in Posttraumatic Distress: Problems with the DSM-IV Model

American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders. 4th ed. Washington (DC):American Psychiatric Association; 1994.

American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders. 3rd ed. Washington (DC):American Psychiatric Association; 1980.

Micale M . Charcot and les nèvroses traumatiques: Historical and scientific reflections. Rev Neurol (Paris) 1994;150:498–505.

Wilson JP . The historical evolution of PTSD diagnostic criteria. J Trauma Stress 1994;7:681–98.

Holmes TH Rahe RH . The social readjustment rating scale. J Psychiatr Res 1967;11:213–8.

Crandall CS . Psychophysical scaling of stressful life events. Psychological Science 1992;3:256–8.

Rabkin JG Struening EL . Life events, stress and illness. Science 1976;194:1013–20.

Leor J Poole WK Kloner RA . Sudden cardiac death triggered by an earthquake. N Engl J Med 1996;334:413–9.

Brahams D . Expert witnesses under scrutiny [letter]. Lancet 1997;349:896.

Green MM McFarlane AC Hunter CE Griggs WM . Undiagnosed post-traumatic stress disorder following motor vehicle accidents. Med J Aust 1993;159:529–34.

Ruijs MB Gabreels FJ Keyser A . The relation between neurological trauma parameters and long-term outcome in children with closed head injury. Eur J Pediatr 1993;152:844–7.

Holden C . Whistleblower woes. Science 1996;271:35.

Kessler R Sonnega A Bromet E Hughes M Nelson CB . Posttraumatic stress disorder in the National Comorbidity Survey. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1995;52:1048–60.

Norris FH . Epidemiology of trauma: Frequency and impact of different potentially traumatic events in different demographic groups. J Consult Clin Psychol 1992;60:409–18.

Resnick HS Kilpatrick DG Dansky BS Saunders BE Best CL . Prevalence of civilian trauma and posttraumatic stress disorder in a representative national sample of women. J Consult Clin Psychol 1993;61:984–91.

Vrana S Lauterbach D . Prevalence of traumatic events and posttraumatic psychological symptoms in a nonclinical sample of college students. J Trauma Stress 1994;7:289–302.

Williams LM . Recall of childhood trauma: A prospective study of women's memories of child sexual abuse. J Consult Clin Psychol 1994;62:1167–76.

Loftus EF Garry M Feldman J . Forgetting sexual trauma: What does it mean when 38% forget? J Consult Clin Psychol 1994;62:1177–81.

Lindal E Stefansson JG . The lifetime prevalence of anxiety disorders in Iceland as estimated by the National Institute of Mental Health Diagnostic Interview Schedule. Acta Psychiatr Scand 1993;88:29–34.

Yehuda R McFarlane AC . Conflict between current knowledge about posttraumatic stress disorder and its original conceptual basis. Am J Psychiatry 1995;152:1705–13.

Lee KA Vaillant GE Torrey WC Elder GH . A 50-year prospective study of the psychological sequelae of World War II combat. Am J Psychiatry 1995;152:516–22.

Kulka RA Schlenger WE Fairbank JA Hough RL Jordan BK , Marmar CR, and others. Trauma and the Vietnam war generation: Report of findings from the national Vietnam veterans readjustment study. New York: Brunner/Mazel; 1990.

Sutker PB Davis JM Uddo M Ditta SR . War zone stress, personal resources, and PTSD in Persian Gulf War returnees. J Abnorm Psychol 1995;104:444–52.

Southwick SM Morgan A Nagy LM Bremner D Nicolau AL , Johnson DR, and others. Trauma-related symptoms in veterans of Operation Desert Storm: A preliminary report. A J Psychiatry 1993;150:1524–8.

Hoiberg A . Military effectiveness of navy men during and after Vietnam. Armed Forces Society 1980;6:232–46.

Ziv A Israeli R . Effects of bombardment on the manifest anxiety level of children living in kibbutzim. J Consult Clin Psychol 1973;40:287–91.

Curran PS . Psychiatric aspects of terrorist violence: Northern Ireland 1969–1987. Br J Psychiatry 1988;153:470–5.

Sigal JJ Weinfeld M . Trauma and rebirth: Intergenerational effects of the Holocaust. New York: Praeger; 1989.

Basoglu M Paker M . Severity of trauma as predictor of long-term psychological status in survivors of torture. J Anxiety Disord 1995;9:339–53.

Basoglu M Paker M Paker O Oxmen E Marks I , Incesu C, and others. Psychological effects of torture: A comparison of tortured with nontortured political activists in Turkey. Am J Psychiatry 1994;151:76–81.

Mayou R Bryant B Duthie R . Psychiatric consequences of road traffic accidents. BMJ 1993;307:647–51.

Brom D Kleber RJ Hofman MC . Victims of traffic accidents: Incidence and prevention of post-traumatic stress disorder. J Clin Psychol 1993;49:131–40.

Malt U . The long-term psychiatric consequences of accidental injury. A longitudinal study of 107 adults. Br J Psychiarty 1988;153:810–8.

Roca RP Spence RJ Munster AM . Posttraumatic adaptation and distress among adult burn survivors. Am J Psychiatry 1992;149:1234–8.

van Driel RC Op den Velde W . Myocardial infarction and post-traumatic stress disorder. J Trauma Stress 1995;8:151–9.

Grassi L Rosti G LaSalvia A Marangolo M . Psychosocial variables associated with mental adjustment to cancer. Psychooncology 1993;2:11–20.

Rabkin JG Wagner G Rabkin R . Treatment of depression in HIV+ men: Literature review and report of an ongoing study of testosterone replacement therapy. Ann Behav Med 1996;18:24–9.

Canino GJ Bravo M Rubio-Stipec M Woodbury M . The impact of disaster on mental health: Prospective and retrospective analyses. International Journal of Mental Health 1990;19:51–69.

Durkin MS Khan N Davidson LL Zaman SS Stein ZA . The effects of a natural disaster on child behavior: Evidence for posttraumatic stress. Am J Public Health 1993;83:1549–53.

McFarlane AC . Life events and psychiatric disorder: The role of a natural disaster. Br J Psychiatry 1987;151:362–7.

Spurrell MT McFarlane AC . Post-traumatic stress disorder and coping after a natural disaster. Soc Psychiatry Psychiatr Epidemiol 1993;28:194–200.

McFarlane AC . The longitudinal course of posttraumatic morbidity: The range of outcomes and their predictors. J Nerv Ment Dis 1988;176:30–9.

Merry SN Andrews LK . Psychiatric status of sexually abused children 12 months after disclosure of abuse. J Am Acad Child Psychiatry 1994;33:939–44.

Rutter M . Beyond longitudinal data: Causes, consequences, changes, and continuity. J Consult Clin Psychol 1994;62:928–40.

Apfel RJ Simon B . Minefields in their hearts: The mental health of children in war and communal violence. New Haven: Yale University Press; 1996.

Garmezy N . Children in poverty: Resilience despite risk. Psychiatry: Interpersonal and Biological Processes 1993;56:127–36.

Cicchetti D Garmezy N . Prospects and promises in study of resilience. Dev Psychopathol 1993;5:497–502.

Symonds M . The “second injury” to victims. Evaluation Change 1980;1:36–8.

Allodi FA . Post-traumatic stress disorder in hostages and victims of torture. Psychiatr Clin North Am 1994;17:279–88.

Pell J Guer L . HIV-infected healthcare workers: Results from a straw poll [letter]. Lancet 1995;346:1425.

Dutton MA Rubenstein FL . Working with people with PTSD: Research implications. In: Figley CR , editor. Compassion fatigue: Coping with secondary traumatic stress disorder in those who treat the traumatized. New York: Brunner/Mazel; 1995:82–100.

Figley CR , editor. Compassion fatigue: Coping with secondary traumatic stress disorder in those who treat the traumatized. New York: Brunner/Mazel; 1995.

Lyon E . Hospital staff reactions to accounts by survivors of childhood abuse. Am J Orthopsychiatry 1993;63:410–6.

Schauben LJ Frazier PA . Vicarious trauma: The effects on female counselors of working with sexual violence survivors. Psychology of Women Quarterly 1995;19:49–64.

Munroe JF Shay J Fisher L Makary C Rapperport K Zimering R . Preventing compassion fatigue: A team treatment model. In: Figley CR , editor. Compassion fatigue: Coping with secondary traumatic stress disorder in those who treat the traumatized. New York: Brunner/Mazel; 1995. p 209–31.

McCarroll JE Ursano RJ Fullerton CS . Symptoms of PTSD following recovery of war dead: 13–15-month follow-up. Am J Psychiatry 1995;152:939–41.

Sutker PB Uddo M Brailey K Allain AN Errera P . Psychological symptoms and psychiatric diagnoses in Operation Desert Storm troops serving Graves registration duty. J Trauma Stress 1994;7:159–71.

Alexander DA . Stress among police body handlers: A long-term follow-up. Br J Psychiatry 1993;163:806–8.

Tranah T Farmer RD . Psychological reactions of drivers to railway suicide. Soc Sci Med 1994;38:459–69.

Breslau N Davis GC Andreski P Peterson E . Traumatic events and posttraumatic stress disorder in an urban population of young adults. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1991;48:216–22.

Hytten K Hasle A . Fire fighters: A study of stress and coping. Acta Psychiatr Scand 1989;80:50–5.

Slagle DA Reichman M Rodenhauser P Knoedler D Davis CL . Community psychological effects following a non-fatal aircraft accident. Aviat Space Environ Med 1990;61:879–86.

Dixon P Rehling G Shiwach R . Peripheral victims of the Herald of Free Enterprise disaster. Br J Med Psychol 1993;66:150–65.

Bundey S . Few psychological consequences of presymptomatic testing for Huntington disease [letter]. Lancet 1997;349:4.

Marteau TM Croyle RT . Psychological responses to genetic testing. Br Med J 1998;316:693–6.

Wiggins S Whyte P Huggins M Adam S Theilmann J , Bloch M, and others. The psychological consequences of predictive testing for Huntington's disease. N Engl J Med 1992;327:1401–5.

Lazarus RS . Psychological stress and the coping process. New York: McGraw-Hill; 1966.

Schachter S Singer JE . Cognitive, social and physiological determinants of emotional state. Psychol Rev 1962;69:379–99.

Sloan P . Post-traumatic stress in survivors of an airplane crash-landing: A clinical and exploratory research intervention. J Trauma Stress 1988;1:211–29.

Foa EB Riggs DS . Posttraumatic stress disorder following assault: Theoretical considerations and empirical findings. Current Directions in Psychological Science 1995;4:61–5.

Gervais A . A surgeon's China. London: Hamish Hamilton; 1934.

Rittenberg S Bennett A . The man who stayed behind. New York: Simon & Schuster; 1993.

Block J . A contrarian view of the five-factor approach to personality description. Psychol Bull 1995;117:187–215.

Kagan J . Galen's prophecy: Temperament in human nature. New York: BasicBooks; 1994.

McCrae RR Costa PTJ . Validation of the five-factor model of personality across instruments and observers. J Pers Soc Psychol 1987;52:81–90.

Tellegen A Lykken DT Bouchard TJ Wilcox KJ Segal NC Rich S . Personality similarity in twins reared apart and together. J Pers Soc Psychol 1988;54:1031–9.

Chess TA . Temperament and development. New York: Brunner/Mazel; 1977.

Kagan J . Temperamental contributions to social behavior. Am Psychol 1989;44:668–74.

Lewis M Ramsay DS . Developmental change in infants' responses to stress. Child Dev 1995;66:657–70.

Maziade M Caron C Coté R Mérette C Bernier H , Laplante B, and others. Psychiatric status of adolescents who had extreme temperaments at age 7. Am J Psychiatry 1990;147:1531–6.

Conley JJ . Longitudinal stability of prsonality traits: A multitrait-multi-method-multioccasion analysis. J Pers Soc Psychol 1985;49:1266–82.

Kobasa SC . Stressful life events, personality, and health. J Pers Soc Psychol 1979;37:1–11.

Garmezy N . Resilience and vulnerability to adverse developmental outcomes associated with poverty. American Behavioral Scientist 1991;34:416–30.

Ursano RJ Wheatley RD Carlson EH Rahe AJ . The prisoner of war: Stress, illness, and resiliency. Psychiatric Annals 1987;17:532–5.

Argyle M . The psychology of happiness. London: Methuen & Co; 1987.

Myers DG . The pursuit of happiness: Who is happy – and why. New York: Avon; 1993.

Sigal JJ Weinfeld M . Stability of coping style 33 years after prolonged exposure to extreme stress. Acta Psychiatr Scand 1985;71:559–66.

Blake DD Cook JD . Post-traumatic stress disorder and coping in veterans who are seeking medical treatment. J Clin Psychol 1992;48:695–704.

Wolfe J Keane T Kaloupek D Mora C Wine P . Patterns of positive readjustment in Vietnam combat veterans. J Trauma Stress 1993;6:179–93.

Bouchard TJ Lykken DT McGue M Segal NL Tellegen A . Sources of human psychological differences: The Minnesota study of twins reared apart. Science 1990;250:223–8.

Plomin R . Environment and genes. Am Psychol 1989;44:105–11.

Loehlin JC . Partitioning environmental and genetic contributions to behavioral development. Am Psychol 1989;443:1285–92.

Costa PT Metter EJ . Personality stability and its contribution to successful aging. Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry 1994;27:41–59.

Usala PD Hertzog C . Evidence of differential stability of state and trait anxiety in adults. J Pers Soc Psychol 1991;60:471–9.

Kendler KS Kessler RC , Walters EE, and others. Stressful life events, genetic liability, and onset of an episode of Major Depression in women. Am J Psychiatry 1995;152:833–42.

Magnus K Diener E Fujita F Payot W . Extraversion and neuroticism as predictors of objective life events: A longitudinal analysis. J Pers Soc Psychol 1993;65:1046–53.

Lonigan CJ Shannon MP Taylor CM Finch AJ Sallee FR . Children exposed to disaster: II. Risk factors for the development of post-traumatic symptomatology. J Am Acad Child Psychiatry 1994;33:94–105.

Hyer L Braswell L Albrecht B Boyd S Boudewyns P Talbert S . Relationship of NEO-PI to personality styles and severity of trauma in chronic PTSD victims. J Clin Psychol 1994;50:699–707.

Aldwin CM Levenson MR Spiro A III Bossé R . Does emotionality predict stress? Findings from the Normative Aging Study. J Pers Soc Psychol 1989;56:618–24.

Ormel J Wohlfarth T . How neuroticism, long-term difficulties, and life situation change influence psychological distress: A longitudinal model. J Pers Soc Psychol 1991;60:744–55.

Cousins N . Anatomy of an illness. New York: WW Norton; 1979.

Friedman HS VandenBos GR . Disease-prone and self-healing personalities. Hospital and Community Psychiatry 1992;43:1177–9.

Kübler-Ross E . On death and dying. London: Macmillan; 1969.

Greer S Morris T Pettingale KW . Psychological response to breast cancer: Effect on outcome. Lancet 1979;ii:785–7.

Taylor SE Brown JD . Illusion and well-being: A social psychological perspective on mental health. Psychol Bull 1988;103:193–210.

Frese M . A plea for realistic pessimism: On objective reality, coping with stress, and psychological dysfunction. In: Montada L Filipp S-H Lerner M , editors. Life crises and experiences of loss in adulthood. Hillsdale NJ: Erlbaum; 1992:81–94.

Friedman JS Booth-Kewley S . The “disease-prone personality”: A meta-analytic view of the construct. Am Psychol 1987;42:539–55.

Friedman HS Tucker JS . Does childhood personality predict longevity? J Pers Soc Psychol 1993;65:176–85.

Joseph S Williams R Yule W . Psychosocial perspectives on post-traumatic stress. Clin Psychol Rev 1995;15:515–44.

Hughes JN Cavell TA . A positive view of self: Risk or protection for aggressive children? Dev Psychopathol 1997;9:75–94.

Baumeister RF Smart L Boden JM . Relation of threatened egotism to violence and aggression: The dark side of high self-esteem. Psychol Rev 1996;103:5–33.

Stevenson HW Lee S-Y Stigler JW . Mathematics achievement of Chinese, Japanese, and American children. Science 1986;231:693–9.

Stevenson HW Chen C-S Lee S-Y . Mathematics achievement of Chinese, Japanese, and American children: Ten years later. Science 1993;259:53–8.

Lykken D Tellegen A . Happiness is a stochastic phenomenon. Psychological Science 1996;7:186–9.

de Beauvoir S . The prime of life. Harmondsworth UK: Penguin; 1962.

Alexander F . Psychosomatic medicine. New York: Norton; 1950.

Traue HC Pennebaker JW , editors. Emotion inhibition and health. Gottingen Germany: Hogrefe & Huber; 1993.

Ekman P . Facial expression and emotion. Am Psychol 1993;48:384–92.

Sinclair RC Hoffman C Mark MM Martin LL Pickering TL . Construct accessibility and the misattribution of arousal: Schachter and Singer revisited. Psychological Science 1994;5:15–9.

Cohen F Lazarus RS . Active coping processes, coping dispositions, and recovery from surgery. Psychosom Med 1973;35:375–89.

Weisenberg M Schwarzwald J Waysman M Solomon Z Klingman A . Coping of school-age children in the sealed room during SCUD missile bombardment and postwar stress reactions. J Consult Clin Psychol 1993;61:462–7.

Nolen-Hoeksema S McBride A Larson J . Rumination and psychological distress among bereaved partners. J Pers Soc Psychol 1997;72:855–62.

Johnson JL Morse JM . Regaining control: The process of adjustment after myocardial infarction. Heart Lung 1990;19:126–35.

Havik OE Maeland JG . Patterns of emotional reactions after myocardial infarction. J Psychosom Res 1990;34:271–85.

Ironson G Taylor CB Boltwood M Bartzokis T Dennis C , Chesney M, and others. Effects of anger on left ventricular ejection fraction in coronary artery disease. Am J Cardiol 1992;70:281–5.

Verrier RL Mittleman MA . Life-threatening cardiovascular consequences of anger in patients with coronary heart disease. Cardiol Clin 1996;14:289–307.

Watson JC . The relationship between vivid description, emotional arousal, and in-session resolution of problematic reactions. J Consult Clin Psychol 1996;64:459–64.

Folkman S Lazarus RS . An analysis of coping in a middle-aged community sample. J Health Soc Behav 1980;21:219–39.

Malia K Powell G Torode S . Coping and psychosocial function after brain injury. Brain Inj 1995;9:607–18.

Mikulincer M Florian V . Stress, coping, and fear of personal death: The case of middle-aged men facing early job retirement. Death Studies 1995;19:413–31.

Solomon Z Mikulincer M Avitzur E . Coping, locus of control, social support and combat related posttraumatic stress disorder: A prospective study. J Pers Soc Psychol 1988;55:279–85.

Nezu AM Carnevale GJ . Interpersonal problem solving and coping reactions of Vietnam veterans with posttraumatic stress disorder. J Abnorm Psychol 1987;96:155–7.

McDonough M . Susan Smith gets life in prison. The Herald-Journal 1995 July 29;Sect A:1.

Wortman CB Silver RC . Reconsidering assumptions about coping with loss: An overview of current research. In: Montada L Filipp S-H Lerner M , editors. Life crises and experiences of loss in adulthood. Hillsdale (NJ): Erlbaum. 1992. p 341–65.

Goldsteen R Schorr JK . The long-term impact of a man-made disaster: An examination of a small town in the aftermath of the Three Mile Island nuclear reactor accident. Disasters 1982;6:10–9.

Helzer JE Robins LN McEvoy L . Post-traumatic stress disorder in the general population. N Engl J Med 1987;317:1630–4.

Ullman SE . Adult trauma survivors and post-traumatic stress sequelae: An analysis of reexperiencing, avoidance, and arousal criteria. J Trauma Stress 1995;8:179–88.

Peterson C Seligman M Vaillant GE . Pessimistic explanatory style is a risk factor for physical illness: A thirty-five-year longitudinal study. J Pers Soc Psychol 1988;55:23–7.

Wortman CB Silver RC . The myths of coping with loss. J Consult Clin Psychol 1989;57:349–57.

Antonovsky A . Health, stress, and coping. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass; 1979.

Wortman CB Silver RC Kessler RC . The meaning of loss and adjustment to bereavement. In: Stroebe MS Stroebe W Hansson RO , editors. Handbook of bereavement: Theory, research, and intervention. New York: Cambridge University Press; 1993. p 349–66.

Hefez A . The role of the press and the medical community in the epidemic of “mysterious gas poisoning” in the Jordan West Bank. Am J Psychiatry 1985;142:833–7.

Small GW Propper MW . Mass hysteria among student performers: Social relationship as a symptom predictor. Am J Psychiatry 1991;148:1200–5.

Chew PK Phoon WH Mae-Lim HA . Epidemic hysteria among some factory workers in Singapore. Singapore Med J 1976;17:10–5.

Newman B . Malaysian malady: When the spirit hits, a scapegoat suffers. Wall Street Journal 1980 March 7:1,24.

Kiser L Heston J Hickerson S Millsap P . Anticipatory stress in children and adolescents. Am J Psychiatry 1993;150:87–92.

Korgeski GP Leon G . Correlates of self-reported and objectively-determined exposure to Agent Orange. Am J Psychiatry 1983;140:1443–9.

Widom CS Morris S . Accuracy of adult recollections of childhood victimization: Part 2. Childhood sexual abuse. Psychological Assessment 1997;9:34–46.

McCormick RA Taber JI Kruedelback N . The relationship between attributional style and post-traumatic stress disorder in addicted patients. J Trauma Stress 1989;2:477–87.

Morgan HJ Janoff-Bulman R . Positive and negative self-complexity: Patterns of adjustment following traumatic versus non-traumatic life experiences. J Pers Soc Psychol 1994;13:63–85.

McIntosh DN Cohen R Wortman CB . Religion's role in adjustment to a negative life event: Coping with the loss of a child. J Pers Soc Psychol 1993;65:812–21.

Baker AM Kevorkian NS . Differential effects of trauma on spouses of traumatized households. J Trauma Stress 1995;8:61–74.

Saul J . Helping the children of war [book review]. Lancet 1997;349:1259.

Bandura A . Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. New York: Freeman; 1997.

Wyman PA Cowen EL . The role of children's future expectations in self-esteem functioning and adjustment to life stress; a prospective study of urban at-risk children. Dev Psychopathol 1993;5:649–61.

Seligman MEP Kamen LP Nolen-Hoeksema S . Explanatory style across the lifespan: Achievement and health. In: Lerner RM Hetherington EM Perlmutter M , editors. Child development in lifespan perspective. Hillsdale (NJ): Lawrence Erlbaum Associates; 1988. p 91–114.

Petrie K Moss-Morris R Weinman J . The impact of catastrophic beliefs on functioning in chronic fatigue syndrome. J Psychosom Res 1995;39:31–7.

Gross JL Munoz RF . Emotion regulation and mental health. Clinical Psychology Science and Practice 1995;2:151–4.

Beck AT . Depression: Clinical, experimental and theoretical aspects. New York: Hoeber; 1967.

Watson CG Anderson PED . Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms in PTSD patients' families of origin. J Nerv Ment Dis 1995;183:633–8.

Rotter JB . Generalized expectancies for internal vs eternal control of reinforcement. Psychologicl Monographs: General and Applied 1966;80:1–28.

Frenkel E Kugelmass S Nathan M Ingraham LJ . Locus of control and mental health in adolescence and adulthood. Schizophren Bull 1995;21:219–26.

Janoff-Bulman R Brickman P . Expectations and what people learn from failure. In: Feather NT , editor. Expectations and actions. Hillsdale (NJ): Erlbaum; 1982. p 207–37.

Wortman CB Sheedy C Gluhoski V Kessler RC . Stress, coping, and health: Conceptual issues and directions for future research. In: Friedman HS , editor. Hostility, coping, and health. Washington (DC): American Psychological Association; 1992. p 227–56.

Schnurr PP Friedman MJ Rosenberg SD . Premilitary MMPI scores as predictors of combat-related PTSD symptoms. Am J Psychiatry 1993;150:479–83.

Bowman ML . Individual differences in posttraumatic response: Problems with the adversity-distress connection. Mahweh (NJ): Lawrence Erlbaum Associates; 1997.

Downey G Silver RC Wortman CB . Reconsidering the attribution-adjustment relation following a major negative event: Coping with the loss of a child. J Pers Soc Psychol 1990;59:925–40.

Davis CG Lehman DR Wortman CB Silver RC Thompson SC . The undoing of traumatic life events. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 1995;21:109–24.

Terr LC . Psychic trauma in children: Observations following the Chowchilla school-bus kidnapping. Am J Psychiatry 1981;138:14–9.

Fraser G . Land of the free, home of the sound bite. The Globe and Mail 1996 April 6;Sect D:4.

Garrison CZ Weinrich MW Hardin SB Weinrich S Wang L . Post-traumatic stress disorder in adolescents after a hurricane. Am J Epidemiol 1993;138:522–30.

King DW King LA Foy DW Gudanowski DM . Prewar factors in combat-related posttraumatic stress disorder: Structural equation modeling with a national sample of female and male Vietnam veterans. J Consult Clin Psychol 1996;64:520–31.

Laufer RS Gallops MD Frey-Wouters E . War stress and trauma: The Vietnam experience. J Health Soc Behav 1984;25:65–85.

Hiley-Young B Blake DD Abueg FR Rozynko V Gusman FD . Warzone violence in Vietnam: An examination of premilitary, military, and postmilitary factors in PTSD in-patients. J Trauma Stress 1995;8:125–41.

Hendin H Haas AP . Combat adaptations in Vietnam veterans without posttraumatic stress disorders. Am J Psychiatry 1984;141:956–60.

Nader KO Pynoos RS Fairbanks LA al Ajeel M al Asfour A . A preliminary study of PTSD and grief among the children of Kuwait following the Gulf Crisis. Br J Psychol 1993;32:407–16.

Farmer JE Peterson L . Injury risk factors in children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Health Psychol 1995;14:325–32.

Flagler SL . Recurrent poisoning in children: A review. J Pediatr Psychol 1987;12:631–41.

Champion LA Goodall G Rutter M . Behaviour problems in childhood and stressors in early adult life: I. A 20 year follow-up of London school children. Psychol Med 1995;25:231–46.

Shepherd J . Are assault victims prone to the surgeon's lancet (and wounds that surely heal)? [letter]. Lancet 1995;346:1560.

Sherwood RJ Funari DJ Piekarski AM . Adapted characters styles of Vietnam veterans with Posttraumatic Stress Disorder. Psychol Rep 1990;66:623–31.

Southwick SM Yehuda R Giller EL . Personality disorders in treatment-seeking combat veterans with posttraumatic stress disorder. Am J Psychiatry 1993;150:1020–3.

Silsby HD Jones FD . The etiologies of Vietnam posttraumatic stress syndrome. Mil Med 1985;150:6–7.

Weston WA Dalby JT . A case of pseudologia fantastica with antisocial personality disorder. Can J Psychiatry 1991;36:612–4.

Johnson WB . Narcissistic personality as a mediating variable in manifestations of post-traumatic stress disorder. Mil Med 1995;160:40–1.

Burkett BG Whitley G . Stolen valor: How the Vietnam generation was robbed of its heroes and its history. Dallas (TX): Verity Press; 1998.

Goldberg C . Lie exposed, killer is back in prison. New York Times 1998 August 27;Sect A:20.

Frueh BC . Symptom overreporting in combat veterans evaluated for PTSD: Differentiation on the basis of compensation seeking status. J Pers Assess 1997;68:369–84.

Johnson-Greene D . Use of educational credentials to estimate pre-morbid intellectual functioning:4061. Annual meeting of American Psychological Association. Toronto: American Psychological Association, 1996. p 207.

Cottler LB Compton WM Mager D Spitznagel EL Janca A . Post-traumatic stress disorder among substance users from the general population. Am J Psychiatry 1992;149:664–70.

Blanchard EB Hickling EJ Taylor AE Loos W . Psychiatric morbidity associated with motor vehicle accidents. J Nerv Ment Dis 1995;183:495–504.

Smith EM Robins LM Przubeck TR Goldrig E Solomon S . Psychosocial consequences of a disaster. In: Shore J Robins L , editors. Psychosocial disaster stress studies: New methods and findings. Washington (DC): American Psychiatric Press; 1986. p 49–76.

Scott RB Brooks N McKinlay W . Post-traumatic morbidity in a civilian community of litigants: A follow-up at 3 years. J Trauma Stress 1995;8:403–17.

Green BL Grace MC Lindy JD Gleser GC Leonard A . Risk factors for PTSD and other diagnoses in a general sample of Vietnam veterans. Am J Psychiatry 1990;147:729–33.

Brady KT . Posttraumatic stress disorder and comorbidity: Recognizing the many faces of PTSD. J Clin Psychiatry 1997;58:12–5.

Boney-McCoy S Finkelhor D . Is youth victimization related to trauma symptoms and depression after controlling for prior symptoms and family relationships? A longitudinal, prospective study. J Consult Clin Psychol 1996;64:1406–16.

Burg MM Seeman TE . Families and health: The negative side of social ties. Ann Behav Med 1994;16:109–15.

Coyne JC Ellard JH Smith DAF . Social support, interdependence, and the dilemmas of helping. In: Sarason IG Sarason BR Pierce GR , editors. Social support: An interactional view. New York: John Wiley & Sons; 1990. p 129–49.

Taylor SE Repetti RL . Health psychology: What is an unhealthy environment and how does it get under the skin? Annual Review of Psychology 1997;48:411–7.

Thoits PA . Stress, coping, and social support processes: Where are we? What next? J Health Soc Behav 1995;36:53–79.

Kendler KS Kessler RC Heath AC Neale MC Eaves LJ . Coping: A genetic epidemiological investigation. Psychol Med 1991;21:337–46.

Cohen S Sherrod DR Clark MS . Social skills and the stress-protective role of social support. J Pers Soc Psychol 1986;50:963–76.

Wills TA DuHamel K Vaccaro D . Activity and mood temperament as predictors of adolescent substance abuse: Test of a self-regulation mediational model. J Pers Soc Psychol 1995;68:901–16.

Masten AS Best KM . Resilience and development: Contributions from the study of children who overcome adversity. Dev Psychopathol 1990;2:425–44.

Cederblad M Dahlin L . Salutogenic childhood factors reported by middle-aged individuals: Follow-up of the children from the Lundby Study grown up in families experiencing three or more childhood psychiatric risk factors. Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci 1994;244:1–11.

Bland LC Sowa CJ . An overview of resilience in gifted children. Roeper Review 1994;17:77–80.

Cederblad M Dahlin L . Intelligence and temperament as protective factors for mental health: A cross-sectional and prospective epidemiology study. Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci 1995;245:11–9.

Macklin ML Metzger LJ McNally RJ Litz BT Lasko NB , Orr SP, and others. Lower precombat intelligence is a risk factor for posttraumatic stress disorder. J Consult Clin Psychol 1998;66:323–6.

McNally RJ Shin LM . Association of intelligence with severity of posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms in Vietnam combat veterans. Am J Psychiatry 1995;152:936–8.

Sutker PB Allain AN . Psychological assessment of aviators captured in World War II. Psychological Assessment 1995;7:66–8.

McFarlane AC . An Australian disaster: The 1983 bushfires. International Journal of Mental Health 1990;19:36–47.

McFarlane AC . Avoidance and intrusion in posttraumatic stress disorder. J Nerv Ment Dis 1992;180:439–45.

Weaver TL Clum GA . Psychological distress associated with interpersonal violence: A meta–analysis. Clin Psychol Rev 1995;15:115–40.

Casella L Motta RW . Comparison of characteristics of Vietnam veterans with and without Posttraumatic Stress Disorder. Psychol Rep 1990;67:595–605.

Rutter M . Pathways from childhood to adult life. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 1989;30:23–51.

Widom CS . Does violence beget violence? A critical examination of the literature. Psychol Bull 1989;106:3–28.

Renaud H Estess F . Life history interviews with one hundred normal American males: “pathogenicity” of childhood. Am J Orthopsychiatry 1961;31:786–802.

Rutter M . Meyerian psychobiology, personality development, and the role of life experiences. Am J Psychiatry 1986;143:1077–87.

Scarr S McCartney K . How people make their own environments: A theory of genotype-environment effects. Child Dev 1983;54:424–35.

Sampson RJ Laub JH . Crime in the making: Pathways and turning points through life. Cambridge (MA): Harvard University Press; 1993.

Grant I Gerst M Yager J . Scaling of life events by psychiatric patients and normals. J Psychosom Res 1976;20:141–9.

Gerst MS Grant I Yager J Sweetwood H . The reliability of the social readjustment rating scale: Moderate and long-term stability. J Psychosom Res 1978;22:519–623.

Gazzaniga MS LeDoux JE . The integrated mind. New York: Plenum; 1978.

Greenwald AG . The totalitarian ego: Fabrication and revision of personal history. Am Psychol 1980;35:603–18.

Lipinski JF Pope HG . Do “flashbacks” represent obsessional imagery? Compr Psychiatry 1994;35:245–7.

Piaget J . Play, dreams and imitation in childhood. New York: WW Norton; 1962.

Hashtroudi S Johnson MK . Aging and the effects of affective and factual focus on source monitoring and recall. Psychol Aging 1994;9:160–70.

Southwick SM Morgan CA Nicolaou AL Charney DS . Consistency of memory for combat-related traumatic events in veterans of operation Desert Storm. Am J Psychiatry 1997;154:173–7.

Wedding D Faust D . Clinical judgment and decision making in neuropsychology. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology 1989;4:233–65.

Brickman P Coates D Janoff-Bulman R . Lottery winners and accident victims: Is happiness relative? J Pers Soc Psychology 1978;36:917–27.

Deutsch M . The pathetic fallacy: An observer error in social perception. J Pers 1960;28:317–32.

Horowitz MJ Schaeffer C Cooney P . Life event scaling for recency of experience. In: Gunderson EKE Rahe RH , editors. Life stress and illness. Springfield (IL): Thomas; 1974. p 125–33.

Ladieu G Hanfmann E Dembo T . Studies in adjustment to visible injuries: Evaluation of help by the injured. J Abnorm Soc Psychology 1947;42:169–192.

Taylor DM Wright SC Moghaddam FM Lalonde RN . The personal/group discrimination discrepancy: Perceiving my group, but not myself, to be a target for discrimination. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 1990;16:254–62.

Taylor SE Brown JD . “Illusion” of mental health does not explain positive illusions. Am Psychol 1994;49:972–3.

Lidz T . The family, language, and the transmission of schizophrenia. In: Rosenthal D Kety S , editors. The transmission of schizophrenia. New York: Pergamon Press; 1968.

Mitchell JT Everly GS . Critical incident stress debriefing: CISD. An operations manual for the prevention of traumatic stress among emergency service and disaster workers. 2nd ed. Ellicott City (MD): Chevron Publishing; 1995.

Royal College of Psychiatrists. Reported recovered memories of child sexual abuse. Psychiatric Bulletin 1997;21:663–5.

Poole DA Lindsay DS Memon A Bull R . Psychotherapy and the recovery of memories of childhood sexual abuse: U.S. and British practitioners' opinions, practices, and experiences. J Consult Clin Psychol 1995;63:426–37.

Shapiro F . Eye movement desensitization and reprocessing: Basic principles, protocols, and procedures. New York: Guilford Press; 1995.

Keane TM Kaloupek DG . Cognitive behavior therapy in the treatment of posttraumtic stress disorder. The Clinical Psychologist 1996;49:7–8.

Agger I Jensen SB . The psychosexual trauma of torture. In: Wilson JP Raphael B , editors. International handbook of traumatic stress syndromes. New York: Plenum Press; 1993. p 684–702.

Cienfuegos AJ Monelli C . The testimony of political repression as a therapeutic instrument. Am J Orthopsychiatry 1983;53:43–51.

Rachman S . Emotional processing. Behav Res Ther 1980;18:51–60.

Horowitz MJ Stinson C Field N . Natural disasters and stress response syndromes. Psychiatric Annals 1991;21:556–62.

Green BL Grace MC Vary MG Kramer TL Gleser GC Leonard AC . Children of disaster in the second decade: A 17 year follow-up of Buffalo Creek survivors. J Am Acad Child Psychiatry 1994;33:71–9.

Deahl MP Gillham AB Thomas J Searle MM Srinivasan M . Psychological sequelae following the Gulf War: Factors associated with susequent morbidity and the effectiveness of psychological debriefing. Br J Psychiatry 1994;165:60–5.

Kenardy JA Webster RA Lewin TJ Carr VJ Hazell PL Carter GL . Stress debriefing and patterns of recovery following a natural disaster. J Trauma Stress 1996;9:37–49.

Hobbs M Mayou R Harrison B Worlock P . A randomised controlled trial of psychological debriefing for victims of road traffic accidents. BMJ 1996;313:1438–9.

Bisson JI Deahl MP . Psychological debriefing and prevention of post-traumatic stress: More research is needed. Br J Psychiatry 1994;165:717–20.

Hammarberg M Silver SM . Outcome of treatment for posttraumatic stress disorder in a primary care unit serving Vietnam veterans. J Trauma Stress 1994;7:195–216.

Solomon Z Shalev A Spiro SE Dolev A Bleich A , Waysman M, and others. Negative psychometric outcomes: Self-report measures and a follow-up telephone survey. J Trauma Stress 1992;5:225–46.

Fontana A Rosenheck R . Effectiveness and cost of the inpatient treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder: Comparison of three models of treatment. Am J Psychiatry 1997;154:758–65.

Frueh BC Turner SM Beidel DC . Exposure therapy for combat-related PTSD: A critical review. Clin Psychol Rev 1995;15:799–817.

Solomon SD Gerrity ET Muff AM . Efficacy of treatments for posttraumatic stress disorder. JAMA 1992;268:633–8.

Foa EB Meadows EA . Psychosocial treatments for posttraumatic stress disorder: A critical review. Annual Review of Psychology 1997;48:449–80.

McFarlane AC . Individual psychotherapy for posttraumatic stress disorder. Psychiatr Clin North Am 1994;17:393–408.

Chambless DL Baker MJ Baucom DH Beutler LE Calhoun KS , Crits-Christoph P, and others. Update on empirically validated therapies, II. The Clinical Psychologist 1998;51:3–16.

Watson CG Tuorila J Detra E Gearhart LP Wielkiewicz RM . Effects of a Vietnam War Memorial pilgrimage on veterans with posttraumatic stress disorder. J Nerv Ment Dis 1995;183:315–9.

Kozaric-Kovacic D Folnegovic-Smalc V Skrinjaric J Szajnberg NM Marusic A . Rape, torture, and traumatization of Bosnian and Croatian women: Psychological sequelae. Am J Orthopsychiatry 1995;65:428–33.

Lerman C Schwartz MD Miller SM Daly M Sands C Rimer BK . A randomized trial of breast cancer risk counseling: Interacting effects of counseling, educational level, and coping style. Health Psychol 1996;15:75–83.

Bonanno GA Keltner D . Facial expressions of emotion and the course of conjugal bereavement. J Abnorm Psychol 1997;106:126–37.

Kaminer H Lavie P . Sleep and dreaming in Holocaust survivors: Dramatic decrease in dream recall in well-adjusted survivors. J Nerv Ment Dis 1991;179:664–9.

Solomon Z Avitzur E . Coping styles and post-war psychopathology among Israeli soldiers. Personality and Individual Differences 1990;11:451–6.

Christensen A Jacobson NS . Who (or what) can do psychotherapy: The status and challenge of nonprofessional therapies. Psychological Science 1994;5:8–14.

McKnight J . Community and its counterfeits. Toronto: Canadian Broadcasting Corporation RadioWorks; 1994. p 1–26.

Summerfield D . Debriefing after psychological trauma: Inappropriate exporting of Western culture may cause additional harm [letter]. BMJ 1995;311:509.

Swartz L Levett A . Political repression and children in South Africa: The social construction of damaging effects. Soc Sci Med 1989;28:741–50.

Galante R Foa D . An epidemiological study of psychic trauma and treatment effectiveness for children after a natural disaster. J Am Acad Child Psychiatry 1986;25:357–63.

Johnson DR Lubin H . Treatment preferences of Vietnam veterans with posttraumatic stress disorder. J Trauma Stress 1997;10:391–405.

Jones L . Responses to stress is not necessarily pathological. BMJ 1995;311:509–10.

Bracken PJ Giller JE Summerfield D . Psychological responses to war and atrocity: The limitations of current concepts. Soc Sci Med 1995;40:1073–82.

Scott MJ Stradling SG . Client compliance with exposure treatments for posttraumatic stress disorder. J Trauma Stress 1997;10:523–6.

Bolin RC . Family recovery from natural disaster: A preliminary model. Mass Emergencies 1976;1:267–77.

Drabek TE Key WH Erickson PE Crowe JL . The impact of disaster on kin relationships. Journal of Marriage and the Family 1975;37:481–94.

Ursano RJ McCaughey BG Fullerton CS , editors. Individual and community responses to trauma and disaster: The structure of human chaos. Cambridge (UK): Cambridge University Press; 1994.

Breslau N Davis GC . Posttraumatic stress disorder. J Nerv Ment Dis 1987;175:256–64.

Byrne DG . Personal assessments of life-event stress and the near future onset of psychological symptoms. Br J Med Psychol 1984;57:241–8.

Aldwin CM Sutton KJ Lachman M . The development of coping resources in adulthood. J Pers 1996;64:837–71.

Hebb DO . Drives and the C.N.S. (conceptual nervous system). Psychol Rev 1955;62:243–54.

Young A . The harmony of illusions: Inventing post-traumatic stress disorder. Princeton (NJ): Princeton University Press; 1995.