Johannesburg

A performative lens

The idea of the performative as a lens through which to look at and think about the complex city known variously as Johannesburg, eGoli (meaning City of Gold), or Jozi (a colloquial name for the city), is located in concepts circulating in understandings of how, after Henri Lefebvre (1991), space is produced in complex ways that unfold situationally and relationally. This formulation seems particularly apt when considering the particular histories of Johannesburg, a city that appears to be able to reinvent itself with uncanny regularity.

In many ways, the lure of Johannesburg is embedded in the DNA of all South Africans: the mythical idea of the City of Gold has as much influence on the national imaginary as the ‘real’ city would seem to claim in many of its representations in art, literature, and performance. In no small way, Johannesburg is the great city of South Africa; its founding following the discovery of gold in 1886 catapulted a colonial backwater into the mainstream of international finance and trade networks, and the resulting energy accelerated the irrevocable processes of modernity in the country and the region, so much so that it has been called the seminal African metropolis by Achille Mbembe (2008).

But there is a wider geographical setting to the prominence of Johannesburg, too. Before the borders of South Africa were settled in 1910, social life in the wider southern African sub-continent was largely fluid. Indeed, political leaders used the terms South Africa and southern Africa interchangeably. And it was in this liminal space where the idea took hold that in the region there was a ‘City of Gold’. No small part of this imaginary was forced upon the people of the region by what the South African poet Ingrid de Kok (2002: 50–51) has called ‘[c]olonial circuits of care and demand’. No less integral to the development of these journeys was the controlled movement of labour from across the southern African subcontinent to work in the mines in the area that became known as the Witwatersrand (a term referring to the escarpment or ‘ridge of white waters’).

Around the dull routines of recruitment, health inspections, transportation, and the like, the lore of a place called Johannesburg took hold. In many places across the region, successive generations of migrants have taken the ritual journey from village to city. This circular flow between the rural periphery and urban centre continues – as it has for more than a century, resolutely undermining attempts by planning and political authorities to draw distinctions between town and country (Bozzoli, 1983).

The American historian, literary critic, and urbanist Lewis Mumford (1970 [1938]) might well have had Johannesburg in mind when he wrote that the city constitutes and encompasses the greatest concentration and complexity of human society: here is the site of the temple, the stock market, the fortress, the library, the city hall, the corporate tower, the nodes of transportation and communications. Here too is where all South Africans are given the space to parade before each other, to perform themselves, to trade their wares, and to build new worlds out of old.

Following Mumford, the acclaimed English planner Peter Hall (1998) expressed it thus: Johannesburg is a ‘site and a crucible of human creativity’. It is both the melting-pot of our many cultures, and the platform of South Africa’s technological innovation. The tradition of the city is to change and reinvent, but this in turn means that if ‘all that is solid melts into air’, then creation has its dark dialectical shadow of destruction. And thus, Johannesburg remains dogged by social and spatial inequalities, and the fraught legacies of apartheid. In its short history, a multitude of Johannesburgs have come and gone, but the finger-prints of these are to be found at every turn if not every street-corner. Certainly, in the past two decades, Johannesburg has experienced the greatest changes in its history. But while the politics underpinning social relations may have changed to some extent, its urban sprawl continues to reflect apartheid’s geography and South Africa’s perennial curse: white wealth, black poverty.

Sophie Wolfrum and Nikolai Brandis (2015), editors of the book Performative Urbanism: Generating and Designing Urban Space, argue that ‘urban space is induced by architecture’ while ‘space is produced while experiencing architecture within a situation’. In elaborating this relation, Wolfrum and Brandis describe ‘a dialectical interplay between architectonic material (intra-architectonic reality) and usage and action (urban reality)’. In this formulation, they argue further, ‘an architectonic situation can be interpreted as performative in the sense of performativity as it has emerged in the discourse over the last decade’. For Wolfrum and Brandis, ‘analysing the urban is not enough’. Rather, they insist, the ‘everyday urban life of the city, with all its potential and conflicts’ must be taken into consideration to allow a complex picture of the city to emerge.

Correlating with the call to complicate readings of the city is Henri Lefebvre’s oft-cited classic theoretical triad of space: the perceived, the conceived, and the lived. In Lefebvre’s framing, the term ‘lived’ space describes the simultaneous and active processes of performance and production, which characterize ‘everyday life’ (after De Certeau, 1984).

Like other modern cities, Johannesburg is a complex ecological, economic, and technical system, which is increasingly integrated into regional and global circuits of cities, and mediated by networks of material and fragile flows. Like other cities, Johannesburg will increasingly require a sophisticated society and active citizenry in order to reproduce and transform itself in an increasingly globalizing but uneven world. Making sense of how and why these processes happen in our times demands of legislators and interpreters alike the ability to develop critical apparatuses and hermeneutical approaches that are both self-reflexive and imaginative. Where the social sciences have increasingly fixated on the collection of ‘big’ data delivered through globally-spread and internationally networked research projects, and place trust in realist epistemologies to provide representative knowledges of actually-existing cities, the humanities have embraced a range of diverse media to re-imagine cities. This workshop embraces both traditions of scholarship to seek a cultural sociology of the contemporary city – the city as site and crucible of performative urbanisms.

It is, therefore, in the spirit of working beyond the constraints of standard urban studies and regimes of spatial planning that this Special Issue of Thesis Eleven has been conceptualized and collated. With a focus on Johannesburg, this issue draws together writing and creative impressions focused on Johannesburg in a project that hopes to take seriously and engage with the question of how to write the city after apartheid, and to explore the possibility of the city that does not hinge on fixing or capturing a single narrative or history or urban aspect. In the many and diverse writings, creative art, and research projects featured here, the intention is to move beyond formulaic constructs of Johannesburg (and its place in regard to the pantheon of African cities), and instead to offer an accounting of its novelties, complexities, and originalities.

This issue also adds to the series of special edited collections that Thesis Eleven has recently published on South Africa. The first was the landmark issue on South Africa’s trajectory since the fall of apartheid and the birth of the ‘new’ South Africa, provocatively titled Between Adolescence and Anger (Thesis Eleven 115, 2013). Following that was a collection of writings on, and by, the Johannesburg author Ivan Vladislavić (Thesis Eleven 136, 2016).

Performative urbanisms and the city of Johannesburg

In September 2015, the Wits City Institute (WCI) and the Johannesburg Institute for Advanced Study (JIAS) hosted a three-day interdisciplinary workshop entitled Performative Urbanisms and the City of Johannesburg – Fighting for and over the City; Expressing the City; Knowing the City. The event was intended to provide South African and international academics, together with Johannesburg-based analysts, activists, artists, and others, with an opportunity to explore a range of themes around Johannesburg and its visual, spatial, textual, and especially performative, representations, in the context of its functioning as a leading global city in comparative perspective. The workshop was convened in collaboration with Australian partners and scholars including the members of the editorial board of this journal, Thesis Eleven: Critical Theory and Historical Sociology: Peter Beilharz, Trevor Hogan, Sian Supski, and Julian Potter; the Thesis Eleven Centre for Cultural Sociology at La Trobe University in Melbourne and its director Trevor Hogan; and the Chair of Culture and Society at Curtin University in Perth, Peter Beilharz.

The critical aim of the workshop revolved around addressing the question of what it would mean to place performance at the centre of our thinking about the city. It proposed to explore creative forms and practices through performances around three intersecting themes: fighting for and over the city; expressing the city; and knowing the city. The theoretical ground for the workshop was imagined through bringing together thinking around ‘art(s)’, ‘activism’ and ‘the academy’ to constitute possible lines of discussion around performative urbanisms of space, time, and design/work. Envisaged to question how particular racial, gendered, class subjectivities are established, performed, and contested in the city, the workshop brought together activists, designers, urbanists, historians, curators, writers and artists, activists, information scientists, and economists into an expanded knowledge field and understanding of the city as dialectic, where the material, the political, the social, the personal, the aesthetic, and the spatial might be considered through interrogating their role in contributing to contingent lived realities.

During the three-day workshop, Performative Urbanisms gathered together a core group of selected thinkers around three cumulative sub-themes, in part to think through and generate the material presented in this Performative Jozi Special Issue of Thesis Eleven. In the first two days, contributors and attendees worked around questions of the politics and sociality of performance, and on the third day we collectively looked at how the methods and theorizations offered by those who work in the humanities and social sciences, might enable us to know and imagine the city.

A key intention of the workshop was to pay attention to knowledge produced in and of the city from beyond the academy, and to re-conceptualize urban cultures. Partly in response to a meeting with activists, representatives of non-governmental organizations (NGOs), and civil society groupings convened in 2015 by Professor Imraan Velodia, Dean of the Faculty of Commerce, Law, and Management at the University of the Witwatersrand, the first session, entitled The Politics of Urban Life – Personal Confessions, provided a space for engaging with the struggles and experiences of social activists working in a range of organizations and institutions in and around the city. Chaired by Peter Vale, here, space was provided for spatial and social justice practitioners and urban activists to share their experiences of working among stakeholders faced with the incessant struggle of negotiating the realities of daily life in Johannesburg’s inner city. Participants included Koketso Moeti, Lauren Royston, Erica Embdon, Munya Masunga, Jacob van Garderen, Tish White, Christa Kuljan, Lisa Vetten, and Maurice Smithers, with a literary contribution from the Afrikaans writer Harry Kalmer. These voices were brought together in the 2016 publication entitled The Politics of Urban Life (Johannesburg: WCI, JIAS, Thesis 11, La Trobe University, Chair of Culture and Society). Produced in a popular format in PDF and in print form, the publication has circulated widely. As we wrote at the time, ‘[d]isturbing, moving and inspiring in turn, the contributions reflect, if partially, a remarkable level of social activism in southern Africa’s biggest city’ (WCI, JIAS, 2016: 5). As such, we thought it fitting to encapsulate them in such a free-standing volume.

Our deliberations took a multi-disciplinary and scholarly turn on day two, to complement the experiential approach previously. Addressing the title Expressing the City – The Performance of Everyday Urbanisms, this was a public forum that focused explicitly on the politics of representation and performance, and featured contributions in which a range of scholars invoked multi-layered disciplinary methods to critically consider questions of how urban space is constructed, what methods are used to constitute the commons and what is the public-city. The opening session introduced aspects of a research project titled Construction Site/Chantier, an initiative which takes the form of a collaboration between artists and researchers from Johannesburg with colleagues based in Zürich, Switzerland, Addis, Ethiopia, Réunion, and the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), aimed at thinking through possibilities for transforming arts curricula at African universities.

Convened by historian and heritage practitioner Cynthia Kros, the first panel featured input via Skype from the Switzerland-based co-leader (with Kros) of the project, artist Georges Pfruender. Additional presentations took the form of short film screenings. Réunion-based filmmaker Yohann Quëland de St Pern deployed video variously as an artform to ‘test the borders of the real’ and to invoke ‘doubt as a tool to augment reality’. Video artist and University of Johannesburg lecturer Nduka Mntambo’s piece posed the questions ‘what can film as a language tell us about the city?’ and ‘can film provide an alternative to the western canon?’ In the following panel, Dutch scholar Nicholas Clark, at the University Pretoria at the time, reflected on his research into the evolving significances of heritage sites in Pretoria. His presentation included a heritage survey of a church in central Pretoria built by Dutch architects in 1904 that began its life as the spiritual home of Afrikaners in the city, and that has since become a place of worship for a francophone African community living in the city. Wits City Institute researcher Mpho Matsipa closed the panel, noting that references to time, history, heritage, and the archive were threads linking all of the projects across the various disciplines.

The pitfalls and potentials presented to cities such as Johannesburg, which are in the throes of adjusting to the digital and online era, came under the spotlight in the panel titled The Smart City. This was a panel comprising associate professors Judy Backhouse and Jason Cohen, and Mitchell Hughes, all from the University of the Witwatersrand School of Economic and Business Sciences, where their research entails studying the efficacy of information systems technologies in various areas including teaching and learning in higher education, health informatics, and IT-enabled health care, and socio-economic development. The realm of hairdressing provided a change of register, recalibrating how the city is viewed from the intimate and gendered perspective of hair care and styling practices as these are played out in the streets of Johannesburg, as well as online, creating new spaces and forms of sociality, and expanding arenas for the performance of identity. Contributing to the panel Hair and the City were Mpho Matsipa, researcher at the Wits City Institute, Danai Mupotsa, lecturer in African Literature at Wits University, researcher Danielle Bowler, and blogger and natural hair activist Kavuli Nyali.

The day’s proceedings closed with a series of presentations in keeping with the project of opening up fresh and vital approaches to studying the city. In the panel Imagining the City, artist and academic from Rhodes University Christine Dixie, and University of Johannesburg research fellow, literary scholar and journalist James Sey, invoked their divergent personal experiences of boxing – in and out of the ring – as a lens through which to narrate a series of engagements centred on specific enclaves within the city of Johannesburg. Such spaces, they argue, remain caught within circuits of performance, real or imagined, stretching to the northern boundaries of rural South Africa, and beyond to the Quirinal Hill in Ancient Rome. The University of Cape Town’s John Higgins moderated the panel. In Hacking the City, anthropologist and artist Jade Gibson turned her attention to Cape Town, and that city’s annual eponymous year-end carnival, as well as other sites of artistic and or cultural performance including coffee shops and a communal art collective. Gibson disentangled – or hacked – the many narratives and identities subsumed within the contested celebration, described by many as ‘traditional’, which remains intimately bound into hidden histories of slavery, but is today replete with layered resonances in its re-enactment in the streets of the contemporary city each year.

In the same panel, anthropologists Detlev Krige and Pia Bombardella (universities of Pretoria and North West respectively), adroitly applied the notion of hacking to disturb the knowledge consensus often derived from conventional spatial research. Krige’s project returned to the previously segregated inner-city of the capital city of Pretoria, as he invoked the Occupy movement and theoretical Marxisms to introduce a detailed view of the processes entailed in deconstructing the colonial space of the Capitol Theatre in Church Square. Bombardella related the outcomes of a reconfiguring of formerly segregated suburban sidewalks in the small town of Potchefstroom, through vegetable and other forms of ‘guerrilla’ gardening. The Wits City Institute’s Noëleen Murray moderated the panel.

The workshop wrapped up its three-day programme with a closed session entitled The Mediated City – How Do We Know the City? – A Response by the Thesis Eleven Collective. Here, colleagues from the Thesis Eleven Centre for Cultural Study presented their responses to the city, as a way of interrogating the tools at our disposal for critical and creative understanding of our urbanisms. Peter Beilharz and Sian Supski shared their impressions and analyses of two works by Ivan Vladislavić, The Restless Supermarket and Portrait with Keys, respectively, while Julian Potter presented his research focused on Ballarat – like Johannesburg, a city established as a gold-rush boomtown, remade in contemporary times as a luxury travel destination with particular notions about its heritage and imbrication in early gold mining and capitalist development in the larger Australian context. In his presentation on Melbourne, Trevor Hogan sketched detailed histories of this leading Australian city’s social and economic evolutions, including dialectics of dispossession and development, all of which have left their mark, and continue to drive diverse and varied impressions of the city’s spatial complexion.

As the essays in this Special Issue of Thesis Eleven illustrate, contemporary Johannesburg captures the energy of a society – or more accurately, multiple societies – in the throes of profound change. And this – flux and recreation – has been the distinguishing feature of Johannesburg since its founding in the 1880s. It seems clear that Johannesburg’s greatness comes from the notion that its presence is greater than the limits of its ranking as South Africa’s largest city. The city’s roots lie in a now-familiar story – in late-Victorian times, imperial interest in Johannesburg’s gold collided with nascent resistances to colonialism. The faith placed in the notion of progress by those who claimed to be the city’s founding fathers, was akin to the civilizing mission associated with different forms of religious zeal. But the gift of wealth which Johannesburg promised Africa was not to be. This was to be Britain’s prize.

The South African War of 1898–1902 was essentially fought over access to what lay beneath the Witwatersrand. South Africa’s reconstruction post the South African War aimed to secure this treasure, and Johannesburg became the hinge around which access was ensured. Thus, the building of Johannesburg was spear-headed by the proverbial ‘best and brightest’ of what England had to offer. These men – and they were all men – were recruited to the task by Alfred Milner, then the British High Commissioner to South Africa.

The group was largely self-selecting: all were recent graduates from Oxford, and most had studied the Classics. All were called upon to make the orderliness of England out of the dystopian world of a new mining town in Africa. Only order of this kind would ensure the central task of the imperial project: continuity. The earliest suburbs of the city are compelling examples of the kind of order to which Edwardian England aspired.

If this was the domestic challenge posed to Milner’s coterie, the external mission was to make on South Africa’s Highveld a suitable space for the metropolitan-inclined elite who would do for Africa what the Industrial Revolution had done for Britain. But Milner’s group was hamstrung by their shared world-view: the state they were forming, like the city itself, was not cut off from a teeming continent. Johannesburg was integral to the social world about it: newly-fledged South Africans would have to find ways to live with those whose labour was building the great city about them.

From its earliest days, then, Johannesburg was a place of barriers and barricades, installed to shelter rich from poor, white from black. It was on this colonial set of beliefs and spatial foundations of separation, that the ignominious catalogue of apartheid legislation was built. The group areas, passbook, population registration, immorality – were all acts intended to divide Johannesburg’s citizens, one from the other. These were necessary – one of the great deceits of colonialism and later apartheid ran – to protect the interests of foreign capital in the country. Yet while the making of Johannesburg made possible the development of a commercial – and, later, an entrepreneurial – class in South Africa, and probably beyond its borders, the mining and industrial economy, as it has done for a century, continued to foster gross inequalities – and it is upon these that the politics of identity has come to settle.

The papers, creative essays and writings, and reviews included in this Special Issue have been drawn from the presentations and discussions that took place on day two of the workshop, as described above. Each of the invited contributions, including this one, has been subject to a double-blind process of anonymous peer review, in which each paper was sent to reviewers for comment and appraisal. Contributors were thereafter afforded an opportunity to refine and revise their contributions based on the reports of at least two reviewers in each case.

Literary scholar Ed Charlton’s essay, ‘Melancholy Mapping: a “Dispatcher’s Eye” and the Locations of Loss in Johannesburg’, seeks to establish the critical potential of melancholy as a mode of mapping the city of Johannesburg in such a way that it remains attentive to the city’s material losses as well as its conceptual elisions, while simultaneously holding on to melancholy as an affective condition, and a psycho-spatial categorization. Through an analysis of Mark Gevisser’s book, Lost and Found in Johannesburg (2014), Charlton considers how Gevisser, in writing his ‘memoir of the self in the city’, points to Johannesburg as a space ‘to a disquieting degree, still…patterned by elision, oblivion, and disorientation’. Drawing on Ranjana Khanna’s formulation of a ‘postcolonial melancholia’, as well as critical social theorists Walter Benjamin and Roland Barthes among others, the author finds in Gevisser’s writing of the self in transit through the Johannesburg of his childhood, a ‘mode of mapping that makes legible the gaps and tears in the “urban fabric”…[and]…opens out the alternative possibilities for reading the muted, inconsolable remains of the past in a city that works otherwise to elude its own unjust historicity’.

Following from this, architect Mpho Matsipa’s paper, ‘Woza! Sweetheart! On Braiding Epistemologies on Bree Street’, describes the practice of hairdressing and braiding as offering a series of alternatives to describe and think about issues of gender, space and spatial planning, survival, and governance in an area of intense business activity and identity-making amid a main thoroughfare in the transformed Johannesburg central business district. Drawing on personal contacts and experience, Matsipa examines how hair braiding has offered black women an opportunity to challenge the neoliberal city’s colonizing and codifying orders, and a means to challenge the grand narratives of spatial governance told by city authorities and property and business owners, for whom Johannesburg’s inner city is best described as being in ‘crisis’. Through a detailed exploration of the networks and strategies employed by black women business owners (established and emerging), the essay contrasts the disembodied views of planners and architects with the intimate and situated views of those creatively making lives in the spaces that modernist planning regimes prefer to label as ‘slum’.

Historian Cynthia Kros and artist Georges Pfruender’s essay ‘Babel Re-Play’ discusses the first phase of a collaborative project that seeks to understand modernity in contemporary cities using the methods of art as research and play theory. Involving artists and academics in Johannesburg and Switzerland, the project is inspired by the open-endedness, and seemingly endless iterations and re-plays of the biblical Tower of Babel myth produced through the ages by philosophers, scholars, writers, and artists. Drawing on the work of critical theorist Michel de Certeau, Swiss artist, playwright, and author Friedrich Dürrenmatt, historian and linguist Paul Zumthor, and the African filmmaker Djibril Diop Mambéty, the project has produced two short films, in which theoretical and artistic methods as well as integrated theories of play are deployed to enable deeper understandings of the multiple narratives that inform and shape the identities of cities. With locations ranging from the Tower of Light on the University of the Witwatersrand campus, to the ruins of the Rand Steam Laundries site in suburban Johannesburg, and from the Leuk satellite communication station in canton Valais, to the Prime Tower in Zürich, the two short films – produced as foundational interventions or ‘bricks’ in the project – link iconic reference points in the Global South to those of the North, to invoke consideration of the role of the city as a site where notions of the modern are critically questioned and re-shaped.

Linked to this, photographer Svea Josephy explores another tower in the city in ‘Acropolis Now: Ponte City as “Portrait of a City”’. The high-rise apartment building Ponte City, towering above suburban Berea and Hillbrow close to Johannesburg’s downtown city centre, is the subject of this essay, which discusses a contemporary art photography project that takes the building as its central point of analysis and interest. The exhibition and book project titled Ponte City, by South African photographer Mikael Subotzky and British artist Patrick Waterhouse (2014), is comprised of archival documents, personal narratives of residents present and past, architectural plans and publicity materials, commissioned writings, and found materials, all curated alongside art photography in a lavish presentation box. The author, herself a fine art photographer, situates this multi-layered work within a broader trajectory of art and documentary photography devoted to representations of the city of Johannesburg (and adjacent inner-city neighbourhoods) that span apartheid and post-apartheid decades. In its heyday, a leading example of utopic apartheid modernist architecture, the grounding of the Ponte building in a different era is made clear by its comparison with its post-apartheid profiling as a landscape of chaos and decay – now figuring as the backdrop for not only the precarious livelihoods of its mostly immigrant inhabitants, but also as dystopian scenery for contemporary cinematic work. While questioning whether the Ponte City work constitutes a ‘city portrait’ in and of itself, or whether it functions as a stand-in for the surrounding city of Johannesburg at large, Josephy’s insistence on using fine-art as a mode of exploration provides a rich addition to scholarship on the city of Johannesburg in particular, and the postcolonial city in general.

The question of performativity is central in the collaboration between artist Christine Dixie and literary scholar/boxer James Sey, whose richly visual essay ‘Wrapping Johannesburg: A Boxing Story’ takes the form of a ‘performative’ dialogue between its co-authors, each of whom interrogate and elaborate upon their separate experiences of boxing (in training and in the ring) to offer an unorthodox analysis of the interfaces between boxing, art, and space. By engaging intellectually and experientially with the critiques and social rituals surrounding boxing, the authors offer an analysis of boxing as an epistemological inquiry that suggests fresh and creative ways to think through the relationships between art, and the urban space of Johannesburg in particular. Drawing on artworks both ancient and modern, literature, cinematography, the African technique of bare-fist fighting musangwe, and fine-art printmaking, the authors invoke various registers in their discussions about space in and out of the ring, while their narratives and experiences range from ancient Rome to the contemporary suburb of Hillbrow close to central Johannesburg, and from Rosebank in Johannesburg’s fancy northern suburbs to the Lundevhe River in northern Venda adjacent to South Africa’s border with Zimbabwe.

In keeping with the critical intention of the workshop to showcase work across genres, Svea Josephy’s photographic essay ‘Satellite Cities’ is a collection of photographs that explore the connections set up by naming practices of settlements and cities that share the same or similar names, but are geographically worlds apart. Josephy offers a series of diptych image-pairs that tease out the networks of perspectives and relationships that feature in settlements that are linked through names to far distant parts of the world. Some of these, often informal, settlements and communities in South Africa are named after sites of war, struggle or conflict, or reference places of liberation and reconciliation.

The Johannesburg-based architect and award-winning author Yewande Omotoso’s interest in the spaces and structures of intimacy is reflected in the rhythm and spacing of her writing as much as it manifests in her design work. The excerpt from her novel Bom Boy, re-published here, reveals in fine-grained narrative detail Omotoso’s concern with the interior spaces of alienation and attachment experienced by the protagonist of the novel. In the review section, urbanist Naomi Roux reflects on a series of titles selected from the burgeoning scholarly and popular literature on Johannesburg, with emphasis on the recently published artbook Up Up: Stories of Johannesburg’s Highrises (Dechman et al., 2016), while urban geographer Siân Butcher provides a trenchant and wide ranging appraisal of the edited compendium Changing Space, Changing City: Johannesburg after Apartheid (Harrison et al., 2014).