Leisure Time Physical Activity Mediates the Relationship Between Neighborhood Social Cohesion and Mental Health Among Older Adults

Abstract

Neighborhood social cohesion can contribute to leisure time physical activity (LTPA) involvement and psychological well-being. In spite of the value of neighborhood social cohesion for health benefits, there is a dearth of empirical study that explores how neighborhood social cohesion influences LTPA and mental health among older adults. Therefore, this study aimed to investigate the association among neighborhood social cohesion, light-to-moderate and vigorous LTPA, and mental health in a representative sample of U.S. older adults (n = 6,412). Structural equation modeling (SEM) analysis revealed that older adults who perceived neighborhood social cohesion were more likely to participate in light-to-moderate and vigorous LTPA, which in turn resulted in better mental health. This study confirmed the importance of neighborhood social cohesion in promoting older adults’ health-related behaviors and mental health. The practical implications on how to promote mental health among older adults, as well as future research directions were discussed.

Keywords

social cohesion older adults leisure time physical activity mental health

Introduction

As the population in many countries ages, facilitating healthy aging and, thus, reducing health-related costs for older adults are major public health concerns (Haselwandter et al., 2015). Leisure time physical activity (LTPA) participation has been identified as a key component of improving health and well-being among older adults. To this end, researchers have provided evidence that participation in LTPA increases physical, social, emotional, and cognitive functions that contribute to successful aging (Balboa-Castillo, León-Muñoz, Graciani, Rodríguez-Artalejo, & Guallar-Castillón, 2011; DiPietro, 2001; Der Ananian & Janke, 2010). These studies have demonstrated that LTPA provides a context in which older adults are able to increase functional independence, reduce negative psychological symptoms, and expand social networks. Thus, researchers strive to promote older adults’ LTPA participation to improve their quality of life and life satisfaction.

From a social ecological perspective, researchers have stressed the importance of social and physical environments, such as community resources, social capital, social support, and neighborhood walkability, as means by which to promote older adults’ health and healthy behaviors (e.g., Strath, Isaacs, & Greenwalk, 2007; Wahl, Iwarsson, & Oswald, 2012). In particular, prior studies have supported the idea that various types of social environments positively influence older adults’ LTPA and positive health outcomes (Cramm, Van Dijk, & Nieboer, 2012; Mohnen, Groenewegen, Völker, & Flap, 2011). These studies found that older adults who perceived higher levels of social capital and a sense of belonging in their neighborhoods tended to engage in higher levels of LTPA and reported better health.

Mendes de Leon et al. (2009) proposed that neighborhood social cohesion is one of the most important social elements in promoting active leisure lifestyles and health perception among older adults. Carpiano (2006) defined social cohesion as “the degree of trust, familiarity, values, and neighborhood network ties shared among residents” (p. 170). For the purpose of this study, neighborhood social cohesion is defined as older adults’ perceptions of trust, reciprocity, and shared values among neighbors. Socially cohesive neighborhoods provide contexts in which older adults establish positive social networks, actively engage in community-based programs, and promote healthy behaviors and health (Gao, Fu, Li, & Jia, 2015; McNeill, Kreuter, & Subramanian, 2006). Previous empirical studies have found that perceived neighborhood social cohesion positively influences levels of LTPA and promote mental health among residents (e.g., Cradock, Kawachi, Colditz, Gortmaker, & Buka, 2009; Fisher, Li, Michael, & Cleveland, 2004; Kawachi & Berkman, 2000; Mendes de Leon et al., 2009). For example, Echeverria, Diez-Roux, Shea, Borrell, and Jackson (2008) found that people who perceived their neighborhood as being socially cohesive (e.g., being close-knit) were more likely to report high levels of LTPA (i.e., walking) and low levels of depressive symptoms.

Although prior studies have reported the association of neighborhood social cohesion and LTPA with mental health, few studies have collectively examined the extent to which neighborhood social cohesion and LTPA relate to mental health among older adults. Previous studies have focused on youth groups and ethnic minorities when investigating the effects of social cohesion on LTPA participation and mental health (e.g., Cradock et al., 2009; Rios, Aiken, & Zautra, 2011); however, less is known about this relationship in older adults. In addition, multiple studies have indicated that different levels of LTPA intensity can contribute differently to health outcomes among older adults (e.g., Halaweh, Willen, Grimby-Ekman, & Svantesson, 2015; Harvey, Hotopf, Overland, & Mykletun, 2010). Therefore, this study aims to investigate the association among neighborhood social cohesion, light-to-moderate and vigorous LTPA, and mental health among older adults. The following specific hypotheses were tested:

Hypothesis 1 (H1): Neighborhood social cohesion has a direct positive effect on mental health.

Hypothesis 2 (H2): Neighborhood social cohesion has a direct positive effect on light-to-moderate LTPA.

Hypothesis 3 (H3): Neighborhood social cohesion has a direct positive effect on vigorous LTPA.

Hypothesis 4 (H4): Light-to-moderate LTPA has a direct positive effect on mental health.

Hypothesis 5 (H5): Vigorous LTPA has a direct positive effect on mental health.

Social Cohesion, LTPA, and Mental Health

Previous studies have shown that social cohesion affects mental health among older adults (Ahern & Galea, 2011; Elliott, Gale, Parsons, Kuh, & HALCyon Study Team, 2014; Hsieh, 2015). For example, a 3-year prospective cohort study with older adults living in Central and Eastern Europe revealed that higher levels of perceived social cohesion resulted in decreased depressive symptoms (Urzua et al., 2018). The authors indicated that social cohesion might help older adults reduce health-compromising behaviors and adopt coping strategies against daily stressors. Using data from the 2011 and 2012 National Health and Aging Trend Study, Choi, Kim, DiNitto, and Marti (2015) revealed significant indirect effects of perceived social cohesion on depressive symptoms. The authors concluded that perceived social cohesion facilitated older adults’ motivations to go outside, which provided them with opportunities for pursuing healthy behaviors (e.g., socializing) and, consequently, promoted mental health.

A substantial number of studies have demonstrated that neighborhood social cohesion plays a significant role in shaping health-related behaviors (i.e., physical activity) among older adults (e.g., Cradock et al., 2009; King, 2008; Mendes de Leon et al., 2009). Fisher et al. (2004), for example, found that older adults who trusted one another in their neighborhoods reported higher levels of LTPA. Similarly, Mendes de Leon et al. (2009) revealed that perceived neighborhood social cohesion significantly predicted walking levels among older adults. Analyzing neighborhood-level data, the Neighborhoods and Senior Health (NASH), King (2008) found that older adults’ perceived neighborhood social cohesion was positively associated with both calories consumed by physical activity and community-based activity (e.g., social activities).

Physical activity has been emphasized by numerous cross-sectional and longitudinal studies as a way by which to improve mental health among older adults (Lampinen, Heikkinen, Kauppinen, & Heikkinen, 2006; Mather et al., 2002). Several studies specifically examined the contributions of various intensities and amounts of LTPA to health outcomes among older adults (e.g., Buman et al., 2010; Halaweh et al., 2015; Harvey et al., 2010; Musich, Wang, Hawkins, & Greame, 2017). For example, Halaweh and colleagues (2015) examined the differences in mental health-related quality of life among community-dwelling elderly for the three LTPA groups (i.e., low, moderate, high). The authors found that older adults who participated in moderate and high levels of LTPA tended to report a better mental health-related quality of life when compared with those older adults who participated in a low level of LTPA. Joshi et al. (2016) found that more active LTPA (e.g., sports) contributed more to mental health than less active LTPA (e.g., gardening). An 8-year follow-up study revealed that, as older adults decreased the intensity of their LTPA during those 8 years, their depressive symptoms increased (Lampinen, Heikkinen, & Ruoppila, 2000).

Given empirical evidence from previous literature, a relationship among neighborhood social cohesion, LTPA, and mental health may exist. Some researchers have suggested such a relationship indicating that perceived neighborhood social cohesion can contribute to mental health through health behavior, such as LTPA (Diez Roux & Mair, 2010; Rios et al., 2011). The potential pathway has received little attention, with one exception to our knowledge (i.e., Van Dyck, Teychenne, McNaughton, De Bourdeaudhuiji, & Salmon, 2015). Van Dyck et al. (2015) examined the mediating role of physical activity in the relationship between perceived neighborhood environments and mental health–related quality of life among middle-aged and older adults. They found that people who perceived their neighborhoods as more socially cohesive were more likely to participate in moderate to vigorous LTPA, which, in turn, resulted in better mental health. Although this study provided important insights into the mediating effect of LTPA on the relationship between social environments and mental health, the analyzed data were limited to the Australian population aged 55 to 65 years.

Method

Data Source

This study used cross-sectional data from the 2016 National Health Interview Survey (NHIS), a nationally representative household survey. The NHIS survey is conducted by the National Center for Health Statistics (NCHS), part of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). The NCHS releases the NHIS data sets for public use annually. Using a multistage probability sampling design, the NHIS collects data from the randomly selected U.S. resident civilian noninstitutionalized population through face-to-face interview. The NHIS selects approximately 41,000 households and 1,07,000 persons each year from the 50 states and the District of Columbia from 2006 to 2015. The NHIS sampling method and survey design have been presented in detail elsewhere (e.g., Parsons et al., 2014). Data from NHIS include a wide range of health-related topics, such as health behaviors, chronic conditions, access to and utilization of health care access, and demographic characteristics. The 2016 NHIS data included a total of 33,028 adults. For this study, we used an age cutoff of 60 years. We excluded all cases from analysis with missing data for any of the study variables or indicated “refused,” “unascertained,” “don’t know,” or “unknown.” Finally, 6,412 adults aged 60 years and above were included in data analysis.

Measures

Demographic factors

We included age (in years), gender, physical condition, and length of residence as individual-level control variables. Physical condition was assessed through the following question, “In the past six months, how often did you have pain?” with four response options of (1) never, (2) some days, (3) most days, and (4) every day. Length of residence was grouped into five categories including “less than 1 year,” “1-3 years,” “4-10 years,” 11-20 years,” and “more than 20 years.”

Neighborhood social cohesion

Neighborhood social cohesion was measured with four items derived from Sampson, Raudenbush, and Earls (1997). Those four items were used as indicators for a latent variable representing neighborhood social cohesion. The selected items include “People around here are willing to help their neighbors,” “This is a close-knit neighborhood,” “People in this neighborhood generally get along with each other,” and “People in this neighborhood can be trusted.” The items were assessed on a 4-point Likert-type scale (1 = definitely agree to 4 = definitely disagree). For this study, all items were reverse-coded and summed, and thus higher scores indicate higher levels of neighborhood social cohesion among older adults. In the present study, the scale of neighborhood social cohesion yielded a Cronbach’s α of .86 in a sample of older adults.

LTPA

LTPA was measured with questions regarding how often and for how long they did a particular type of activity per day or week. The respondents were specifically asked to report the number of days and the duration of light-to-moderate and/or vigorous physical activities that they participated in. Light-to-moderate LTPA refers to physical activity that causes a light-to-moderate increase in breathing or heart rate or light sweating while vigorous LTPA indicates physical activity that results in heavy sweating or large increase in breathing or heart rate. Vigorous intensity and moderate intensity refer to 8.0 and 4.0 METs (metabolic equivalent), respectively. Continuous scores for light-to-moderate and vigorous LTPA were calculated as MET-min per week (i.e., MET level × minutes of activity per day × days per week) as in the following:

\begin{array}{l} Light - to - moderate LTPA = (METs [4] X \min X days) \\ Vigorous LTPA = (METs [8] X \min X days) \end{array}

Moreover, as both light-to-moderate and vigorous LTPA were not normally distributed, a two-step approach (Templeton, 2011) was used to obtain adequate normality prior to data analysis. An initial step included transforming the variables into percentile ranks to secure uniformly distributed probabilities. A second step was to apply an inverse normal transformation to provide normally distributed z scores.

Mental health

Mental health was measured with six selected items derived from Kessler Psychological Distress Scale (K10; Kessler et al., 2003). Those six items were used as indicators for a latent variable representing mental health. Respondents were asked to rate the amount of mental distress they have experienced in the past 4 weeks. The items were assessed on a 5-point Likert-type scale (1 = all of the time to 5 = none of the time). All items were summed and thus higher scores indicate better mental health status among older adults. In the present study, the six-item scale yielded a Cronbach’s α of .84 in a sample of older adults.

Data Analysis

All analyses were conducted using AMOS (Version 22.0, IBM, US) and SPSS (Version 18.0, IBM, US). First, SPSS software was used to generate descriptive statistics (i.e., means and standard deviation) with regard to all variables (i.e., demographics, neighborhood social cohesion, LTPA, and mental health) (Table 1 and 2). Cronbach’s alpha coefficients with SPSS were used to measure internal consistency for observed variables. Following this, confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was implemented in AMOS to test the validity of the measurement model. For testing the hypothesized model, structural equation modeling (SEM) was performed in AMOS. The model fit was assessed by multiple fit indices (i.e., χ² statistic, standardized root mean square residual [SRMR], root mean square error approximation [RMSEA], comparative fit index [CFI], goodness-of-fit index [GFI]). A nonsignificant value of chi-square statistic indicates good fit to the data. However, the χ² test has a problem in that as sample sizes increase, the value of χ² will simultaneously increase. Therefore, alternative fit indices have been proposed. An RMSEA value of 0.08 or less indicates a very good fit (Hooper, Coughlan, & Mullen, 2008). As for SRMR, a value of .08 or less indicates acceptable fit (Hu & Bentler, 1999). For CFI and GFI, value of at least .9 indicates an acceptable fit (Hu & Bentler, 1999). Following the SEM analysis, Sobel’s (1982) mediation test was used to test the significant indirect of LTPA in the relationship between neighborhood social cohesion and mental health.

Table 1.

Characteristics of Older Adults.

	n (Valid %)/M (SD)
Gender
Female	3,512 (54.8%)
Male	2,900 (45.2%)
Age (years)	70 (7)
Length of time living in neighborhood (years)	4 (1.17)
Frequency of pain in the past 6 months
Never	1,742 (27.2%)
Some days	3,144 (49.0%)
Most days	556 (8.7%)
Every days	965 (15%)
Race/ethnicity
White	5,543 (86.4%)
Black	486 (7.6%)
American Indian and Alaska Native	38 (0.6%)
Asian	253 (3.9%)
Multiple race	79 (1.2%)
Other	13 (0.2%)

Table 2.

Means, Standard Deviations, Factors Loadings, and Reliability for Study Variables.

Variable	Older adults (n = 6,412)
Variable	M	SD	Loadings	Cronbach’s α
Social cohesion	3.33	0.80		.86
People in this neighborhood help each other out	3.37	0.81	0.88
There are people I can count on in this neighborhood	3.49	0.75	0.86
People in this neighborhood can be trusted	3.50	0.98	0.82
This is a close-knit neighborhood	2.99	0.71	0.82
Mental health	4.68	0.55		.84
So sad that nothing could cheer you up	4.66	0.73	0.77
Nervous	4.55	0.83	0.72
Restless or fidgety	4.50	0.89	0.70
Hopeless	4.84	0.55	0.81
Everything was an effort	4.64	0.81	0.78
Worthless	4.87	0.53	0.75
LTPA	1,596	2,425		—
Light-to-moderate LTPA	824	1,210	—
Vigorous LTPA	773	1,957	—

Note. LTPA = leisure time physical activity.

p ≤ .05. **p ≤ .01. ***p ≤ .001.

Results

Correlation Analysis

Pearson correlation coefficients were used as the bivariate analysis procedure by which to examine the relationship between the continuous independent variables and the dependent variable of mental health. The correlation analysis (Table 3) showed that all of the study variables and demographics were significantly associated with mental health status. As expected, both light-to-moderate (r = .05, p < .001) and vigorous LTPA (r = .06, p < .001) were positively correlated with mental health. Age (r = .09, p < .001) and length of residence (r = .09, p < .001) were also positively associated with mental health, meaning that people who were older and had lived longer in their neighborhoods tended to report better mental health. Frequency of physical pain was most strongly associated with mental health (r = −.26, p < .001), followed by neighborhood social cohesion (r = .16, p < .001). This result suggests that older adults who have had physical pain less frequently in the past 6 months and perceived their neighborhoods as socially favorably were more likely to report better mental health.

Table 3.

Pearson Correlations of Independent Variables and Mental Health.

Variable	1.	2.	3.	4.	5.	6.	7.
1. Age	1
2. Years in neighborhood	.11**	1
3. Physical pain	−.26*	−.02	1
4. Social cohesion	.07**	.08**	−.09**	1
5. Light-to-moderate LTPA	.02	.02	−.04**	.02	1
6. Vigorous LTPA	−.07**	−.01	−.03**	.01	.12**	1
7. Mental health	−.09**	.09**	−.26**	.16**	.03*	.04**	1

Note. LTPA = leisure time physical activity.

p < .05. **p < .001.

SEM Analysis

The results of the CFA indicated that the hypothesized measurement model fit the data adequately, χ2(df = 32) = 294.08, p < .001; RMSEA = 0.036; SRMR = 0.017; CFI = 0.990; GFI = .991. With the accepted measurement, the structural equation model was tested. The hypothesized model provided an acceptable fit to the data, χ2(df = 102) = 937.55, p ≤ .001; RMSEA = 0.036; SRMR = 0.023; CFI = 0.970; GFI = .988. In Table 4, the direct effects in the structural model were presented with the structural coefficients, t values, and R2 (i.e., explained variance).

Table 4.

A Summary of Direct Effects, Structural Coefficients, t-Value, Variance Explained, and Hypothesis Testing.

Paths			β (SE)	t-value	R ²	Hypothesis (Direct effect)
Social cohesion	→	Mental health	.16 (0.01)	10.99***	.15	H1: Supported
Social cohesion	→	Light-to-moderate LTPA	.05 (0.01)	3.46***	.01	H2: Supported
Social cohesion	→	Vigorous	.03 (0.01)	2.43*	.03	H2: Supported
Social cohesion	→	LTPA	.03 (0.01)	2.43*	.03	H2: Supported
Light-to-moderate LTPA	→	Mental health	.04 (0.02)	2.71**	—	H3: Supported
Vigorous LTPA	→	Mental health	.06 (0.02)	4.66***	—	H3: Supported

Note. Control variables include age, gender, length of time living in neighborhood, and frequency of physical pain. LTPA = leisure time physical activity.

p ≤ .05. **p ≤ .01. ***p ≤ .001.

The study results showed that mental health was directly influenced by age (β = .06), gender (β = −.08), length of residence (β = .06), physical pain (β = −.26), neighborhood social cohesion (β = .14), light-to-moderate LTPA (β = .04), and vigorous LTPA (β = .06). Therefore, we confirmed that H1, H4, and H5 were supported. We also found that neighborhood social cohesion was positively associated with both light-to-moderate (β = .05) and vigorous LTPA (β = .03). The findings suggest that older adults who perceive neighborhood social cohesion are more likely to participate in light-to-moderate and vigorous LTPA, meaning that H2 and H3 were supported. Collectively, the predictor variables in this structural model accounted for 15% of the variance in the participants’ mental health. Figure 1 shows the standardized coefficients for the paths from neighborhood social cohesion to mental health through light-to-moderate and vigorous LTPA.

Figure 1.

Final structural equation model with standardized path coefficients.

Following the SEM test, a Sobel mediation test was conducted to examine the significant indirect effect of LTPA between neighborhood social cohesion and mental health. As a result, we found that both light-to-moderate and vigorous LTPA mediated the relationship between neighborhood social cohesion and mental health (p < .05, t = 2.36 and p < .001, t = 2.89, respectively). This finding suggests that older adults who reported higher levels of perceived neighborhood social cohesion were more likely to participate in light-to-moderate and/or vigorous LTPA, which, in turn, resulted in better mental health.

Discussion

This study examined how neighborhood social cohesion affected LTPA involvement and mental health among older adults. Prior studies have supported the idea that perceived social cohesion reduced depressive symptoms and a level of stress and illnesses among residents (e.g., Diez Roux & Mair, 2010; Rios et al., 2011). The results of our study were aligned with those studies and suggested that older adults who experienced high neighborhood social cohesion developed coping strategies and resources in the community that resulted in better mental health. For example, a socially connected neighborhood may increase the likelihood that they will take advantage of using coping strategies, such as seeking social support (e.g., speaking to family or friends), activities/hobbies (e.g., exercise, arts), and cognitive strategies (e.g., positive thoughts; Yanos & Rosario, 2014). Consequently, these coping strategies and resources will help experience positive feelings and emotions that contribute to mental health among older adults.

The results also indicated that older adults who perceived neighborhood social cohesion were more likely to participate in both light-to-moderate and vigorous LTPA. This finding is consistent with previous studies that found high levels of perceived neighborhood social cohesion were associated with community safety and trust (e.g., low neighborhood crime rates), which, in turn, increased engagement in physical activity (Ferreira, Flaus, & Owen-Hughes, 2007; Legh-Jones, & Moore, 2012; Sampson et al., 1997). Moreover, we found neighborhood social cohesion in the structural model accounted for 1% and 3% of the variance in light-to-moderate LTPA and vigorous LTPA, respectively. Although the effects were small, the results of our study still have important health implications for the elderly population of the United States, indicating that creating a socially cohesive neighborhood has the potential to promote health behaviors on a large scale.

Our results indicated that the beneficial effect of neighborhood social cohesion was stronger on light-to-moderate LTPA than vigorous LTPA, although the difference was small. This finding might be explained by the fact that the most common type of physical activity among older adults is walking (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 1996). Although high levels of perceived neighborhood social cohesion predicted vigorous LTPA participation, it may be more beneficial for older adults when deciding whether to engage in light-to-moderate LTPA, such as outdoor walking and community-based recreational programs and activities.

Our study found that participation in both light-to-moderate and vigorous LTPA contributes to mental health among older adults. In particular, we found that vigorous LTPA participation is a stronger predictor of mental health than light-to-moderate LTPA. This finding is partially associated with previous work by Joshi et al. (2016) who found that more active older adults (i.e., those older adults who engaged in sports and walking) were more likely to report better mental health than less active (e.g., those who engaged in gardening) and inactive older adults. These results suggest that, although the majority of older adults may predominately engage in light-to-moderate LTPA (e.g., walking), greater benefits for mental health could be derived by more strenuous types of LTPA (e.g., jogging, recreational sports).

Our study also confirmed that neighborhood social cohesion had an effect on mental health through its effect on LTPA. This finding corroborates previous work by Perez and colleagues (2015) who found that the effect of neighborhood social cohesion on mental health was greater for people who used LTPA-related facilities than those individuals who did not use those facilities. In a study conducted by Van Dyck et al. (2015), leisure time walking, as well as moderate and vigorous LTPA, served as the strongest mediators of the associations among social and physical environments and quality of life in middle-aged and older adults. Taken together, we suggest that positive neighborhood social attributes can offer rich opportunities for older adults’ LTPA participation that can positively influence mental health.

Some limitations of this study need to be addressed. First, this study used a cross-sectional design to provide evidence on a cause–effect relationship among neighborhood social cohesion, LTPA, and mental health. It is possible that a reverse relationship could exist: increased mental health may enable greater LTPA and higher neighborhood social cohesion. It would be interesting if future studies examined a reverse cause–effect relationship among these variables. For example, future research could compare the goodness of fits between the current model and a reverse model. In addition, the majority of the participants in this study were non-Hispanic Whites. This may present a challenge when attempting to generalize the findings across ethnic groups. As such, future research could benefit from using a sample uniformly distributed across all ethnic groups in order to examine whether variations in neighborhood social cohesion, LTPA, and mental health are significantly related to race and ethnicity.

Implications and Conclusion

This study suggests practical implications related to promoting mental health among older adults. First, this study stresses the importance of neighborhood social cohesion for older adults’ health and well-being. To improve neighborhood social cohesion, policy makers should pay attention to promoting convenient access to community resources and improving neighborhood safety. In particular, researchers have identified several safety features for promoting healthy behaviors and health among older adults, such as well-maintained pedestrian infrastructures, neighborhood attractiveness, and local crime rates (e.g., Bowling & Stafford, 2007; Strath et al., 2007; Wahl et al., 2012). Previous research has suggested that specific places in neighborhoods where LTPA occurs, such as green spaces and urban park settings, have the potential to facilitate social interactions and possibly create strong bonds among community members (Francis, Giles-Corti, Wood, & Knuiman, 2012; Peters, Elands, & Buijs, 2010). Given this, modifying or improving physical environments may be an important component for enhancing neighborhood social cohesion, which will, in turn, lead to LTPA participation and better mental health.

We found that both light-to-moderate and vigorous LTPA mediated the relationship between neighborhood social cohesion and mental health. Due to this result, we suggest ways by which neighborhood social cohesion can improve mental health through LTPA. As older adults become attached to their neighborhoods, they tend to be less mobile and rely more on neighbors and local support systems, such as local senior assistance programs, for help in their proximal neighborhoods (Glass & Balfour, 2003; Kubzansky et al., 2005; Stafford, Mcmunn, & De Vogli, 2011). As such, Choi et al. (2015) suggested that neighborhood senior centers and intergenerational community centers can provide older adults with safe and trusting environments where they can easily interact with neighbors, younger volunteers, and service providers. That is, such community organizations and services will serve as places where older residents can enhance their perceptions of neighborhood social cohesion and promote their participation in physical and social activities.

In addition, recreation and activity professionals need to offer a variety of community and social events designed not only to build a sense of connectedness and belongingness to the community, but also to promote LTPA in older adults. For example, group-based local exercise programs, such as natural walking clubs, would be beneficial for older adults in regard to experiencing neighborhood social cohesion and increasing LTPA levels. As a result, being physically active and pursuing active leisure within a socially cohesive neighborhood will lead to better mental health and well-being in older adults. Previous studies have suggested that community-based physical activity interventions that promote cohesive networks among neighbors are cost-effective strategies for improving both physical activity and health (Kahn et al., 2002; Roux et al., 2008).

This study provides evidence that a socially cohesive neighborhood is an important element in promoting LTPA involvement and mental health among older adults. In addition, we confirmed that LTPA participation mediates the relationship between neighborhood social cohesion and mental health among older adults. Based on the results, this study produced insightful information and suggestions on how to create socially cohesive neighborhood environments conducive to promoting LTPA and mental health among older adults. Furthermore, our study adds to the existing body of knowledge, suggesting that neighborhood social cohesion plays an important role in facilitating successful aging and quality of life. Future work, especially prospective studies, might attempt to address the limitations of this study, examining the causal relationship between neighborhood social cohesion, LTPA, and mental health.

Footnotes

Authors’ Note

Junhyoung Kim is now affiliated with Department of Recreation, Park, and Tourism Studies, Indiana University Bloomington.

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The authors declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The authors received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

ORCID iD

Jaehyun Kim

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