Loneliness, a subjective feeling experienced by a considerable number of older adults, is often related to life stressors. Family functioning and self-perceptions of aging (SPA) may be associated with loneliness, but no prior research has combined them into a single explanatory model. This study examined the role of family functioning and SPA in associations between life stressors and loneliness in older adults. Participants were 317 individuals aged 65 and older, recruited from urban areas in Spain. A path analysis tested direct and indirect associations among variables. Results indicated life stressors were indirectly associated with loneliness through family functioning and negative SPA. In addition, family functioning was indirectly associated with loneliness through SPA. The model showed excellent fit and explained 48% of the variance in loneliness. Findings provide a theoretical basis for interventions to reduce loneliness by enhancing family support and promoting positive SPA.
AlonsoJ.PrietoL.AntoJ. M. (1995). The Spanish version of the SF–36 health survey (the SF–36 health questionnaire): An instrument for measuring clinical results. Medicina Clínica, 104(20), 771–776.
2.
AlonsoM. F. (2012). Social support networks in Spain: The factors that determine models of choice. International Sociology, 27(3), 384–402. https://doi.org/10.1177/0268580911423063
3.
AndradeJ. M.Drumond AndradeF. C.de Oliveira DuarteY. A.Bof de AndradeF. (2020). Association between frailty and family functionality on health-related quality of life in older adults. Quality of Life Research, 29(6), 1665–1674. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11136-020-02433-5
4.
AntonucciT. C.BirdittK. S.AkiyamaH. (2009). Convoys of social relations: An interdisciplinary approach. In BengstonV. L.GansD.PulneyN. M.SilversteinM. (Eds.), Handbook of theories of aging (2nd ed., pp. 247–260). Springer Publishing Company.
5.
AslanY.KoçakO. (2025). The impact of perceived family social support on life satisfaction among older adults in Türkiye during COVID-19: Mediating roles of loneliness and coping strategies. The British Journal of Social Work, 55(6), 2976–2994. https://doi.org/10.1093/bjsw/bcaf083
6.
BeamC. R.KimA. J. (2020). Psychological sequelae of social isolation and loneliness might be a larger problem in young adults than older adults. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy, 12(S1), S58–S60. https://doi.org/10.1037/tra0000774
7.
BélangerE.AhmedT.VafaeiA.CurcioC. L.PhillipsS. P.ZunzuneguiM. V. (2016). Sources of social support associated with health and quality of life: A cross-sectional study among Canadian and Latin American older adults. BMJ Open, 6(6), e011503. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2016-011503
8.
Bellón-SaameñoJ. A.Delgado-SánchezA.Luna-del CastilloJ. D.Lardelli-ClaretP. (1996). Validity and reliability of the family Apgar family function test. Atención Primaria, 18(6), 289–296.
9.
BollenK. A. (1989). A new incremental fit index for general structural equation models. Sociological Methods & Research, 17(3), 303–316. https://doi.org/10.1177/0049124189017003004
10.
BrazierJ. E.HarperR.JonesN. M.O’CathainA.ThomasK. J.UsherwoodT.WestlakeL. (1992). Validating the SF–36 health survey questionnaire: New outcome measure for primary care. British Medical Journal, 305(6846), 160–164. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.305.6846.160
11.
BryantC.BeiB.GilsonK.KomitiA.JacksonH.JuddF. (2012). The relationship between attitudes to aging and physical and mental health in older adults. International Psychogeriatrics, 24(10), 1674–1683. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1041610212000774
CacioppoJ. T.HawkleyL. C.ThistedR. A. (2010). Perceived social isolation makes me sad: 5-year cross-lagged analyses of loneliness and depressive symptomatology in the Chicago health, aging, and social relations study. Psychology and Aging, 25(2), 453–463. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0017216
14.
CacioppoJ. T.HughesM. E.WaiteL. J.HawkleyL. C.ThistedR. A. (2006). Loneliness as a specific risk factor for depressive symptoms: Cross-sectional and longitudinal analyses. Psychology and Aging, 21(1), 140–151. https://doi.org/10.1037/0882-7974.21.1.140
15.
ChengS. T. (2017). Self-perception of aging and satisfaction with children’s support. The Journals of Gerontology: Series B, Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 72(5), 782–791. https://doi.org/10.1093/geronb/gbv113
16.
ChoiJ. Y.LeeS. H.YuS. (2024). Exploring factors influencing caregiver burden: A systematic review of family caregivers of older adults with chronic illness in local communities. Healthcare, 12(10), 1002. https://doi.org/10.3390/healthcare12101002
17.
ChuW.-M.TangeC.NishitaY.TomidaM.ShimokataH.OtsukaR.LeeM.-C.AraiH. (2023). Effect of different types of social support on physical frailty development among community-dwelling older adults in Japan: Evidence from a 10-year population-based cohort study. Archives of Gerontology and Geriatrics, 108, 104928. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.archger.2023.104928
18.
CohenJ. (1988). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences (2nd ed.). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203771587
19.
CzajaS. J.CharnessN.RogersW. A.SharitJ.MoxleyJ. H.BootW. R. (2024). The benefits of technology for engaging aging adults: Findings from the PRISM 2.0 trial. Innovation in Aging, 8(6), igae042. https://doi.org/10.1093/geroni/igae042
20.
DahlbergL.McKeeK. J.FrankA.NaseerM. (2022). A systematic review of longitudinal risk factors for loneliness in older adults. Aging & Mental Health, 26(2), 225–249. https://doi.org/10.1080/13607863.2021.1876638
21.
DiehlM.BrothersA. F.WahlH.-W. (2021). Self-perceptions and awareness of aging: Past, present, and future. In Warner SchaieK.WillisS. H. (Eds.), Handbook of the psychology of aging (pp. 155–179). Academic Press. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-816094-7.00001-5
22.
DiTommasoE.BrannenC.BestL. A. (2004). Measurement and validity characteristics of the short version of the social and emotional loneliness scale for adults. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 64(1), 99–119. https://doi.org/10.1177/0013164403258450
23.
Fernandes-PiresJ. A.Pedroso-ChaparroM. D. S.Jiménez-GonzaloL.Márquez-GonzálezM.CabreraI.Losada-BaltarA. (2023). Marital satisfaction and mental health in adults over 40 years old. Associations with self-perceptions of aging and stress related to the COVID-19 pandemic. Spanish Journal of Psychology, 26, e14. https://doi.org/10.1017/SJP.2023.13
24.
Fernández-FernándezV.Márquez-GonzálezM.Losada-BaltarA.GarcíaP. E.Romero-MorenoR. (2013). Diseño y validación de las escalas de evaluación del impacto psicológico de sucesos vitales pasados: El papel del pensamiento rumiativo y el crecimiento personal. Revista Española de Geriatría y Gerontología, 48(4), 161–170. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.regg.2013.03.006
25.
FolsteinM. F.FolsteinS. E.mchughP. R. (1975). “Mini-mental state” A practical method for grading the cognitive state of patients for the clinician. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 12(3), 189–198. https://doi.org/10.1016/0022-3956(75)90026-6
26.
FurfaroE.PelleE.RivelliniG.ZaccarinS. (2024). Which support is provided in which country? Patterns among older adults in Europe. European Journal of Ageing, 21(15), 15. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10433-024-00808-y
27.
GaoF.ZhouL.GaoY.ZhangY.ZuoA.ZhangX. (2022). Effects of physical and mental health factors and family function on the self‐perception of aging in the elderly of Chinese community. Brain and Behavior, 12(9), e2528. https://doi.org/10.1002/brb3.2528
28.
GaoY.-J. (2018). Functional autonomy, emotional support, and well-being trajectories among the old-old. International Journal of Psychology and Behavioral Analysis, 4, 137. https://doi.org/10.15344/2455-3867/2018/137
29.
García-HuidobroD.PuschelK.SotoG. (2012). Family functioning style and health: Opportunities for health prevention in primary care. British Journal of General Practice, 62(596), e198–e203. https://doi.org/10.3399/bjgp12x630098
30.
GardinerC.GeldenhuysG.GottM. (2018). Interventions to reduce social isolation and loneliness among older people: An integrative review. Health & Social Care in the Community, 26(2), 147–157. https://doi.org/10.1111/hsc.12367
31.
GrahamE. K.BeckE. D.JacksonK.YonedaT.mcgheeC.PieramiciL.AthertonO. E.LuoJ.WillrothE. C.SteptoeA.MroczekD. K.OngA. D. (2024). Do we become more lonely with age? A coordinated data analysis of nine longitudinal studies. Psychological Science, 35(6), 579–596. https://doi.org/10.1177/09567976241242037
32.
HajekA.SutinA. R.PosiG.StephanY.PeltzerK.TerraccianoA.LuchettiM.KönigH. H.KönigH. H. (2024). Chronic loneliness and chronic social isolation among older adults. A systematic review, meta-analysis and meta-regression. Aging & Mental Health, 29(2), 185–200. https://doi.org/10.1080/13607863.2024.2385448
33.
HawkleyL. C.ZhengB.SongX. (2020). Negative financial shock increases loneliness in older adults, 2006-2016: Reduced effect during the great recession (2008-2010). Social Science & Medicine (1982), 255, 113000. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2020.113000
34.
Holt-LunstadJ.RoblesT. F.SbarraD. A. (2020). Advancing social connection as a public health priority in the United States. American Psychologist, 75(3), 517–530. https://doi.org/10.1037/amp0000103
35.
HuL.-t.BentlerP. M. (1998). Fit indices in covariance structure modeling: Sensitivity to underparameterized model misspecification. Psychological Methods, 3(4), 424–453. https://doi.org/10.1037/1082-989X.3.4.424
36.
HuR. X.LiL. W. (2022). Social disconnectedness and loneliness: Do self-perceptions of aging play a role?The Journals of Gerontology. Series B, Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 77(5), 936–945. https://doi.org/10.1093/geronb/gbac008
37.
HylandP.McGintyG.KaratziasT.MurphyJ.VallièresF.McHugh PowerJ. (2019). Can the REBT theory explain loneliness? Theoretical and clinical applications. Cognitive Behaviour Therapy, 48(1), 39–51. https://doi.org/10.1080/16506073.2018.1475505
38.
IBM Corp. (2014). IBM SPSS amos (version 23.0). IBM Corp. [Computer software].
39.
JöreskogK. G.SörbomD. (1993). LISREL 8: Structural equation modeling with the SIMPLIS command language. Scientific Software International; Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
40.
KeitnerG. I.RyanC. E.MillerI. W.KohnR.BishopD. S.EpsteinN. B. (1995). Role of the family in recovery and major depression. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 152(7), 1002–1008. https://doi.org/10.1176/ajp.152.7.1002
41.
KimE. Y.MiklowitzD. J. (2004). Expressed emotion as a predictor of outcome among bipolar patients undergoing family therapy. Journal of Affective Disorders, 82(3), 343–352. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2004.02.004
42.
LaidlawK.KishitaN. (2015). Age-appropriate augmented cognitive behavior therapy to enhance treatment outcome for late-life depression and anxiety disorders. GeroPsych: The Journal of Gerontopsychology and Geriatric Psychiatry, 28(2), 57–66. https://doi.org/10.1024/1662-9647/a000128
43.
LamJ.CampbellA. (2022). Life events and loneliness among older women of diverse sexual identities: Application of the stress process model. Research on Aging, 45(2), 239–254. https://doi.org/10.1177/01640275221090681
44.
LatrofaM.VaesJ. y.CadinuM. (2012). Self-stereotyping: The central role of an ingroup threatening identity. The Journal of Social Psychology, 152(1), 92–111. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224545.2011.565382
45.
LazarusR. F.FolkmanS. C. S. (1984). Stress, appraisal and coping. Springer Publishing Company.
LevyB. R.SladeM. D.KunkelS. R.KaslS. V. (2002b). Longevity increased by positive self-perceptions of aging. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 83(2), 261–270. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.83.2.261
50.
LevyB. R.SladeM. D.KaslS. V. (2002a). Longitudinal benefit of positive selfperceptions of aging on functional health. The Journals of Gerontology. Series B, Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 57(5), 409–417. https://doi.org/10.1093/geronb/57.5.p409
51.
LiR.MiT.WuD.GuoZ.RenZ. (2025). Family resilience and perceived stress: A three-level meta-analysis. Family Process, 64(2), e70045. https://doi.org/10.1111/famp.70045
52.
LiangJ.BollenK. A. (1983). The structure of the Philadelphia geriatric center morale scale: A reinterpretation. Journal of Gerontology, 38(2), 181–189. https://doi.org/10.1093/geronj/38.2.181
53.
Losada-BaltarA.Jiménez-GonzaloL.Gallego-AlbertoL.Pedroso-ChaparroM. D. S.Fernandes-PiresJ.Márquez-GonzálezM. (2021). “We are staying at home.” association of self-perceptions of aging, personal and family resources, and loneliness with psychological distress during the lock-down period of COVID-19. The Journals of Gerontology. Series B, Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 76(2), e10–e16. https://doi.org/10.1093/geronb/gbaa048
54.
Losada-BaltarA.Martínez-HuertasJ. Á.Jiménez-GonzaloL.Pedroso-ChaparroM. S.Gallego-AlbertoL.Fernandes-PiresJ.Márquez-GonzálezM. (2022). Longitudinal correlates of loneliness and psychological distress during the lockdown situation due to COVID-19. Effects of age and self-perceptions of aging. The Journals of Gerontology: Series B, Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 77(4), 652–660. https://doi.org/10.1093/geronb/gbab012
55.
Losada-BaltarA.Jiménez-GonzaloL.Martín-MaríaN.García-GarcíaL.Fernandes-PiresJ. A.Márquez-GonzálezM.CabreraI. (2025). Psychological predictors of behavioral disconnection and mental health in older adults. Protocol of a mixed-methods longitudinal study. https://doi.org/10.17605/OSF.IO/TZ637
56.
MasiC. M.ChenH.-Y.HawkleyL. C.CacioppoJ. T. (2011). A meta-analysis of interventions to reduce loneliness. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 15(3), 219–266. https://doi.org/10.1177/1088868310377394
57.
MüllerJ.ZhaoX.ForanH. M. (2024). A technology-supported psychoeducational intervention for older adults and their families to improve social isolation, loneliness, and intergenerational connectedness: A randomized controlled study. Cyberpsychology. Behavior, and Social Networking, 27(11), 835–845. https://doi.org/10.1089/cyber.2023.0549
58.
MurphyD. J.MackenzieC. S.PorterM. M.ChipperfieldJ. G. (2025). Reimagine aging: A process-based intervention to decrease internalized ageism. Clinical Gerontologist, 48(4), 743–756. https://doi.org/10.1080/07317115.2024.2355539
PachanaN. A.LaidlawK.QuallsS. H. (2014). Family therapy with ageing families. In PachanaEn N. A.LaidlawK. (Eds.), The Oxford handbook of clinical geropsychology. Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199663170.013.020
61.
PeplauL. A.PerlmanD. (Eds.), (1982). Loneliness: A sourcebook of current theory, research and therapy. John Wiley & Sons.
62.
PreacherK. J.HayesA. F. (2004). SPSS and SAS procedures for estimating indirect effects in simple mediation models. Behavior Research Methods, Instruments & Computers, 36(4), 717–731. https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03206553
63.
QuallsS. H. (2014). Family therapy with ageing families. In PachanaN. A.LaidlawK. (Eds.), The Oxford handbook of clinical geropsychology (pp. 710–732). Oxford University Press.
64.
Sargent-CoxK. A.AnsteyK. J.LuszczM. A. (2014). Longitudinal change of self-perceptions of aging and mortality. The Journals of Gerontology, Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 69(2), 168–173. https://doi.org/10.1093/geronb/gbt005
65.
ShinO.ParkS.AmanoT.KwonE.KimB. (2020). Nature of retirement and loneliness: The moderating roles of social support. Journal of Applied Gerontology, 39(12), 1292–1302. https://doi.org/10.1177/0733464819886262
66.
SiebertJ. S.WahlH.-W.DegenC.SchröderJ. (2018). Attitude toward own aging as a risk factor for cognitive disorder in old age: 12-year evidence from the ILSE study. Psychology and Aging, 33(3), 461–472. https://doi.org/10.1037/pag0000252
67.
SmilksteinG. (1978). The family APGAR: A proposal for a family function test and its use by physicians. The Journal of Family Practice, 6(6), 1231–1239.
SturgeonJ. A.ZautraA. J.OkunM. A. (2014). Associations between financial stress and interpersonal events: A daily diary study of middle-aged adults and their life circumstances. Psychology and Aging, 29(4), 803–813. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0037961
70.
SwitsersL.DierckxE.Domènech-AbellaJ.De DonderL.DuryS.D-SCOPE Consortium. (2021). Negative old-age life events and well-being in later life: The moderating and mediating role of loneliness. International Psychogeriatrics, 33(12), 1265–1276. https://doi.org/10.1017/s1041610220004196
71.
SzcześniakM.TułeckaM. (2020). Family functioning and life satisfaction: The mediatory role of emotional intelligence. Psychology Research and Behavior Management, 13, 223–232. https://doi.org/10.2147/PRBM.S240898
72.
VedderA.StroebeM. S.StokesJ. E.SchutH. A. W.SchutB.BoernerK.BoelenP. A. (2024). Exploring loneliness across widowhood and other marital statuses: A systematic review integrating insights from grief research. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 41(12), 3741–3769. https://doi.org/10.1177/02654075241277229
73.
VelaithanV.TanM. M.YuT. F.LiemA.TehP. L.SuT. T. (2024). The association of self-perception of aging and quality of life in older adults: A systematic review. The Gerontologist, 64(4), gnad041. https://doi.org/10.1093/geront/gnad041
74.
VictorC. R.RipponI.QuinnC.NelisS. M.MartyrA.HartClareN. L. (2021). The prevalence and predictors of loneliness in caregivers of people with dementia: Findings from the IDEAL programme. Aging & Mental Health, 25(7), 1232–1238. https://doi.org/10.1080/13607863.2020.1753014
75.
Yárnoz-YabenS. (2008). Adaptación al castellano de la escala para la evaluación de la soledad social y emocional en adultos SESLA-S. International Journal of Psychology and Psychological Therapy, 8(1), 103–116.
76.
ZhouG.WangY.YuX. (2018). Direct and indirect effects of family functioning on loneliness of elderly Chinese individuals. Current Psychology, 37(1), 295–301. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-016-9512-5
