Factors Affecting Juvenile Care Workers’ Intent to Continue Working in Juvenile Corrections

Abstract

Employee turnover in social service organizations such as juvenile corrections poses a major problem for both administrators and frontline juvenile care workers (JCWs). Prior to turnover, many employees contemplate such an action; this is referred to as turnover intent. Several factors can affect JCWs’ decisions about whether to work in a facility or leave. The current study examined some of these factors using an integrated theory of person–environment fit and social identity. Findings indicate that perceived attitudes congruence (AC) between the juvenile detention staff and the climate of the facility was a significant predictor of intent to continue working as a juvenile staff. Results also revealed that juvenile staff strongly identified with their professional role as a salient part of their self-concept and individuals’ perceptions of shared attitudes with coworkers contributed to their professional identity. Perceived AC then predicted intent to continue working as a JCW. Implications for practice and future research are discussed.

Keywords

corrections institutional corrections juvenile justice

Employee turnover is a cause of concern for most organizations, including social service organizations. The literature on employee turnover in social service organizations reveals that voluntary turnover, in which the employee chooses to leave the environment and is not fired or asked to leave, can have a negative impact on the work environment. The voluntary turnover rate in most social services occupations is generally very high (Drake & Yadama, 1996) and can exceed rates of 40% (Lambert & Hogan, 2009). Turnover in juvenile corrections, unfortunately, may be even more pronounced (Tipton, 2002). The detrimental impact of employee turnover is amplified in closed organizations like correctional facilities because they operate almost completely on trained and experienced staff to meet their objectives and maintain facility safety (Mitchell, Mackenzie, Styve, & Glover, 2000).

In juvenile detention facilities, the safety of staff and juvenile wards often can depend on the working knowledge and relationships that the juvenile care workers (JCWs) have developed through on the job experience. Disruption in staffing, therefore, can result in a shortage of experienced and skilled personnel working with the correction population (Minor, Wells, Angel, & Matz, 2010). When new personnel are hired, care workers with more experience are usually expected to perform additional duties in order to maintain order and safety within the facility. This places additional stress on staff: older workers who must take on more duties and newer workers who might feel pressure to take on more responsibilities before they are ready.

In addition to this stress on staff, high turnover rates also can be problematic for administrators since they are financially taxing for facilities. Lambert and Hogan (2009) estimate the total cost of putting a new staff member on the job can reach approximately $20,000, and Crews and Bonham (2007) report that the cost of training a new employee can be approximately $7,525. The cost of hiring and training personnel can divert money away from pay, benefits, or the work environment (Minor et al., 2010).

With the many detrimental outcomes associated with voluntary employee turnover, establishing the causes of voluntary turnover is a critical topic for detention facilities and juvenile correction systems. This current study addresses voluntary turnover within juvenile detention settings by applying an integrated theoretical framework drawn from social identity theory and person–environment fit (Cable & Edwards, 2004). We use this conceptual framework to examine how juvenile care worker identity (JCW-ID) affects the relationship between perceived attitudes congruence (AC) with facility culture and intent to continue working at a detention facility. Here, JCW-ID refers to the individuals’ work-related definition of themselves as someone who works with juvenile offenders in a long-term correctional facility. Perceived AC refers to the individual staff attitudes toward delinquency and treatment of juvenile offenders. Each of these constructs has been previously shown to separately contribute to turnover intent.

Theoretical Framework

The growing body of research on turnover in juvenile corrections has helped to illuminate several factors that can impact JCWs’ decision to leave. Of the factors examined in the literature, work or organizational factors have consistently been related to significant turnover intentions (Minor et al., 2011). As a theoretical perspective, person–environment fit and social identity theory examine how people fit in with other people and with social groups. These theoretical paradigms also can help explain how staff might use information about themselves and their social groups to make work-related decisions, including decisions about turnover.

Separately, person–environment fit and social identity theory have been used to examine a variety of factors relating to turnover in organizations; but to date, only one other study has integrated person–environment fit and social identity theory. Cable and Edwards (2004) examined theoretical linkages between value congruence and psychological need fulfillment and the effects on employee attitudes using a sample of water treatment agency employees. They found strong relationships between personal values and psychological needs, as well as between organization values and resources. These findings suggest that complementary and supplementary fit are interrelated while contributing independently to predicting employee attitudes.

According to the person–environment fit paradigm, compatibility between individuals and the work environment occurs when there is a match between the needs of the individual and the environment; such congruence has been defined via two distinct research areas: supplementary fit and complementary fit (Cable & Edwards, 2004; Kristof, 1996). Complementary fit occurs when individuals’ characteristics add to what is missing in the work environment (Cable & Edwards, 2004; Kristof, 1996). A reciprocal relationship develops when the individuals’ characteristics add something that is missing in the work environment, and the work environment satisfies the individuals’ needs (Fields, 2002). Supplementary fit occurs when individuals perceive their characteristics as similar to the characteristics of others in the workplace or to the mission of the organization (Cable & Edwards, 2004; Fields, 2002; Kristof, 1996). They add to, or supplement, what already exists through their similarity to others in the work environment.

Prior research on the relationship between individuals and their work environment suggests that employees’ perceptions of congruence between self-characteristics and the environment will lead to better performance in and loyalty to their job (Kristof, 1996). However, Lauver and Kristof-Brown (2001) found that employees’ perceptions of congruence with the organization (supplementary fit) were a better predictor of intent to quit than congruence with characteristics of their job (complementary fit). Thus, we choose to focus on supplementary fit for this article in order to capitalize and further investigate the link demonstrated by Lauver and Kristof-Brown (2001) on employee perceptions of their organizational fit and turnover intent.

Social identity is based on membership in a defined social group (Tajfel, 1974, 1978; Tajfel & Turner, 1979). Because individuals have an inherent need to belong, their belief about whether or not that need is being met is a function of their identity and their perception of congruence with facets of the environment (Hogg & Abrams, 1998). The interaction between individuals’ identity and their perception of congruence with their work environment may help in understanding issues associated with work-related outcome. There is an emotional significance for individuals tied to their group membership (Hogg & Abrams, 1998); the more salient the group identity is to an individual, the stronger the connection to the group and the more influence the group has on the individual’s behavior. Thus, individuals who perceive themselves as different from group members may develop an out-group identity and feel ostracized from the group (Hogg & Abrams, 1998). JCWs who feel like their attitudes toward juvenile justice or juvenile offenders are not consistent with other care workers might feel ostracized from their coworkers.

People who feel ostracized or like an out-group member can experience increased job stress, decreased job performance, job dissatisfaction, and shortened job tenure (Hogg, Terry, & White, 1995). The JCW role can be especially challenging due to the multiple responsibilities that working with adjudicated youth typically entails (Roush, 1996). JCWs’ self-assessment of their ability to perform these duties and their attitudes regarding criminal justice issues can influence their interaction with incarcerated youth (Bazemore, Dicker, & Al-Gadheeb, 1994; Gordon, 1999) as well as their interactions with coworkers. For instance, individuals may align themselves with other staff they perceive as having similar job-related attitudes, while distancing themselves from those whose attitudes differ from their own. This behavior has the potential for resulting in a perceived in-group/out-group dynamic in which some JCWs are treated as outsiders. The tension created by this dynamic could result in some individuals being kept out of the information loop. If the lack of communication is escalated to the point of not sharing information about youth-related issues, there could be detrimental consequences for the whole facility.

In addition to the paucity of prior research that integrates person–environment fit and social identity theory, neither of these perspectives appears to have been previously studied together in relation to juvenile correctional workers. Juvenile correctional facilities provide a unique setting in which to examine the interactional relationships between individuals, their work environment, and work-related outcomes. The context of juvenile corrections’ climate and culture is distinctive from those previously examined, in that the environment is controlled. As such, the possible disparity in juvenile staff attitudes toward dealing with juvenile offenders (correctional vs. rehabilitative approaches; Bazemore et al., 1994; Gordon, 1999, Liou, 1998) and working in a restricted physical environment and corrections-oriented culture (Bazemore & Day, 1998; Farkas, 2001) can result in high levels of job stress, dissatisfaction, and frequent turnover (Mitchell et al., 2000).

Integrating tenets of social identity theory with the person–environment fit paradigm provides a more thorough understanding of the ways in which the subjective value placed on group membership affects individuals’ perceptions of their environment. Person–environment fit focuses on the perceived match between staff and the work setting; social identity focuses on perceived categorization within a social group. Both of these factors, the perceived fit and perceived categorization, can impact staff decisions about whether to remain in the juvenile correctional field.

JCWs’ attitudes and identity are just two factors, which can affect employee decisions regarding turnover intent; prior research has shown that there are a variety of reasons that can impact turnover intent decisions. Causes of employee turnover, in both adult and juvenile correctional facilities, have been linked to intrapersonal attitudes and demographic factors as well as organizational and even societal level factors. According to Barak, Nissly, and Levin (2001), the strongest predictors of turnover or intention to leave a human service occupation include all three levels; individual: age, education level, tenure, burnout, and job dissatisfaction; societal: availability of employment alternatives; and organizational: low organizational and professional commitment, stress, and lack of social support. This study examined issues at the individual and organizational level in order to better understand turnover intent.

One limitation of many of the research findings is the use of turnover intent as a measurement tool for predicting actual turnover. Turnover intent is defined at the cognitive process of thinking of quitting, planning on leaving a job, and the desire to leave the job (Mobley, Griffeth, Hand, & Meglino, 1979). The diffuse literature on the subject has shown that employee turnover intent is not always related to actual behavior. Although employees might intend to leave their jobs, environmental factors, like the perceived shortage of available jobs, might interfere with their intentions. Turnover intent might not fully predict actual turnover; however, the employee’s decision to consider leaving their job also would mean the employee is in the cognitive mind-set as mentioned by Mobley et al. (1979); this outlook can impact the performance of the job. Employee’s affective and emotional states have been shown to affect their job performance and turnover (Wright & Cropanzano, 2000), so likely does turnover intent. In addition, using turnover intent allows researchers to make inferences for change in real time because it is too late to change the work environment for an employee who has already left (Lambert & Hogan, 2009).

The Current Study

Drawing on the tenets of person–environment fit and social identity theory, the focus of the current study is to examine the extent to which JCW-ID and perceived AC are associated with intent to continue working as a JCW. Together, these theories suggest that perceived AC (e.g., supplementary fit with the organization and coworkers’ attitudes) will affect JCWs’ decision about remaining a JCW; care workers’ who do not perceive congruence will be less likely to continue working. Thus, we hypothesize that JCW-ID will positively affect the magnitude of the relationship between intent to continue working as a JCW and perceived AC. In this hypothesis, supplementary fit exists when individuals perceive their characteristics as similar to those of their coworkers and/or the mission of the organization in which they work (Kristof, 1996). Prior research in retention has shown that a high level of peer goal congruence is negatively correlated with turnover intentions (Bretz & Judge, 1994; Kristof, 1996).

AC also has been used in prior research to typify supplementary fit (Cable & Edwards, 2004). Individuals’ perceptions that their attitudes are similar to their coworkers provide the basis for feeling included in their work-related group (Abrams, Ando, & Hinkle, 1998; Cable & Edwards, 2004). Here, similarity between JCWs and the culture of the facility environment is defined in terms of attitudes toward delinquency and treatment of juvenile offenders and attitudes of their coworkers. Perceived strength of attitudes, as either similar or different, can affect the care workers’ overall perception of attitude congruence and therefore their “fit” with the organization in which they work.

Method

The data for the current study were collected in 2006 as part of a larger multistate study entitled Youth and Staff in Juvenile Correctional Facilities: An Examination of Relationships, Roles and Outcomes. Data for that larger study were collected from juvenile offenders, juvenile staff, and lead facility administrators at selected long-term facilities in Alaska, Idaho, Nevada, and Oregon. These data collection sites were selected using the follow criteria: (1) the presence of at least one longer term correctional unit (e.g., minimum length of stay of approximately 90 days) at the designated facility; (2) the facility accepts both males and females between the age of 12 and 19; (3) the site is preferably the largest facility in the state, which meets the other base criteria; and (4) the designated facility has access to a resource (e.g., psychologist) for debriefing youth and staff, if necessary. These criteria were established in order to meet the needs of the overall study and allowed the researchers to gain a diversified sample of incarcerated juveniles, juvenile staff, and facility administrators. This specific study focuses on the juvenile staff employed at each facility. More detailed explication of procedures has been previously published (Marsh & Evans, 2009).

Participants

The target population for the study was a nonprobability convenience sample of juvenile staff who work with juvenile offenders at five long-term secure correctional facilities in four states: Alaska, Idaho, Nevada, and Oregon. The participants were recruited after a discussion with the superintendent at each facility about the appropriate time and place; during the designated time, the researchers distributed in-person surveys to available care workers in each facility, who agreed to participate and signed a consent form. Of the total 296 JCWs, 250 care workers from these five facilities agreed to participate resulting in an 85% response rate: 69% were male and 31% were female. The majority of participants were Caucasian/White (82%), then multiethnic/other (7%), African American/Black (3%), Asian American/Pacific Islander (3%), Latino/Mexican/Hispanic (2%), and Native American/Alaskan Native (2%). The age of participants ranged from 20 to 64 years, with a mean age of 41. Of the total participants, 41% reported that their highest level of education was a bachelor’s degree, 28% reported no formal education beyond high school, 21% reported holding an associate’s degree, and 10% reported holding a graduate degree. More females (56%) had a bachelor’s degree than males (36%); however, more males (12%) had a graduate degree than females (6%; Table 1).

Table 1.

Demographics Array.

Demographics	%
Gender
Male	69
Female	31
Ethnicity
Caucasian/White	82
Multiethnic/other	7
African American/Black	3
Asian American/Pacific Islander	3
Latino/Mexican/Hispanic	2
Native American/Alaskan Native	2
Education level
Bachelor’s degree	41
High school diploma	28
Associate’s degree	21
Graduate degree	10

The reported length of tenure ranged from less than 1 year to 34 years, with a mean length of tenure of 8 years. Approximately 46% of care workers worked at their current facility for 5 years or less; of those, 23% worked at their facility for 1 year or less. In all, 19% reported working at their facility between 6 and 10 years; 10% reported working between 11 and 15 years; and 25% reported working at their facility for 16 years or more.

Procedure

Approval to conduct the research was obtained from the Social and Behavioral Review Board Institutional Review Board at the lead author’s institution prior to data collection. In-person surveys were administered to groups of JCWs at each facility. Potential participants were informed that participation was voluntary and a decision to not participate would not adversely affect the participant’s job situation; they were also told that their survey was confidential. Those who chose to participate signed a consent form and were given a survey with a facility level identifier but no other identifying information. Surveys took approximately 20 min to complete.

Measures

The measures were taken from existing literature on social identity (Hogg & Abrams, 1998; Mael & Tetrick, 1992; Rutland & Cinnirella, 2000), person–environment fit (Abdel-Halim, 1981; Cable & Judge, 1996, Caplan et al., 1980; Fields, 2002), and juvenile justice (Gordon, 1999; Mitchell, Mackenzie, Glover, & Styve, 2001; Mitchell et al., 2000). The measures utilized for both the overall study and the current study were pretested at a youth facility in Alaska. JCWs on-site were asked to participate in the survey process. A total of 15 care workers volunteered; each care worker was given the survey instrument, interviewed, and then debriefed.

Pretest results indicated that the scales were adequate for the study in terms of sufficient αs, meeting normality assumptions and expected correlations.

Individuals’ perceptions can influence their cognitive evaluation and behavior (e.g., Abrams et al., 1998; Hogg & Abrams, 1998); therefore, individual-level measures are appropriate for ascertaining the perceived congruence of the relationship between individuals, their work environment, and work-related outcomes (Kristof, 1996). Both direct and indirect individual-level measures were used in the survey. Direct measures asked individuals explicitly whether the care worker believed a good fit existed; indirect measures asked for individuals’ explicit comparison of their characteristics to those of the organization by asking them to make a judgment about organizational characteristics (e.g., “What do you value?” and “What does your organization value?”; Kristof, 1996). A good fit or congruence between the individual and the facility was thought to exist if the individual perceived it as such (Kristof, 1996).

The dependent variable was staff intent to continue working in the correctional field. As previously mentioned, employee intentions can be a limited measure of actual turnover due to the influence of other variables (e.g., availability of other jobs). An individual’s sense of satisfaction at work, however, has been shown to be related to their commitment to the organization (Maslach, Schaufei, & Leiter, 2001). There also is a high correlation between intent to continue working, commitment, and satisfaction among workers (Abrams & Randsley de Moura, 2001; Brown & Yoshioka, 2003; Caplan et al., 1980). This literature suggests that employee intent can be a reliable indicator of satisfaction with their job which, in turn, can affect their desire to continue working in the juvenile correctional field.

Scales

Cronbach’s αs were calculated for each Likert-type scale used in the current study. All scales were examined for the normality and, with the exception of the Measure of Socially Desirable Response (MSDR), all scales met the assumptions for normality. The MSDR was positively skewed; a logarithmic transformation was used and the resulting scale, the (log10) MSDR scale, was then used for data collection (Table 2).

Table 2.

Cronbach’s α for Scales by Scale Name and α.

Scale		α
Intent to continue working as a juvenile care worker scale	INTENT	.78
Juvenile care worker identity scale	JCW-ID	.71
Measure of socially desirable response	MSDR	(log10) .71
Attitudes congruence scale	AC	.70

Intent to continue working as a JCW (INTENT) was comprised of five questions, all measured on a 5-point Likert-type scale. These items included questions such as “When I talk about this facility, I usually say ‘we’ instead of ‘they’”; “My job gives me a chance to do the things I feel I do best”; and “I feel my job and I are well matched.” The JCW-ID scale was comprised of seven questions measured on a 5-point Likert-type scale. Sample questions include “I like being a juvenile care worker”; “I feel strong ties to other juvenile care workers”; and “I am similar to the average juvenile care worker.” The AC scale was comprised of seven questions measured on a 5-point Likert-type scale. Sample questions include “Most of our kids because they came from bad homes”; “Most of our kids are delinquent because they lack the opportunities other kids have”; and “All of our staff have the same basic treatment philosophy.” The MSDR was comprised of four questions measured on a 5-point Likert-type scale. Sample questions include “I am always courteous, even to people who are disagreeable”; “There have been occasions when I took advantage of someone”; and “I sometimes feel resentful when I don’t get my way.”

Results

Analysis

Two separate analyses were used to examine the mediating and moderating effects of JCW-ID. Very few studies have examined both moderating and mediating effects within the same study. This approach has been shown to increase the understanding of how constructs combine to generate the outcome variable of interest when examining previously untested relationship (Baron & Kenny, 1986; Frone, 1999).

The first analysis examined the moderating effect of JCW-ID on the relationship between perceived AC and intent to continue working as a juvenile staff. The second analysis examined the mediating effects of JCW-ID on the relationship between perceived AC and intent to continue working as a JCW. Both analyses used a hierarchical analysis to see how each new covariate could impact the model. JCWs were not modeled within facilities; instead they were measured as a whole group because the primary interest was with group-level and not facility-level data.

Moderating Effect of JCW-ID

Prior to the multivariate linear regression, the measures were examined for potential colinearity, missing data issues, linear relationships, and normality. Missing data were minimal and the correlation table revealed moderate correlations. Scatterplots with curve estimation showed substantively linear relationships across variables.

The first analysis examined the effect of the JCW-ID and the perceived AC interaction term on intent to continue working as a JCW. JCW-ID was expected to function as a moderator by positively affecting the magnitude (e.g., strength) of the relationship between intent to continue working as a JCW and perceived AC (Figure 1).

Figure 1.

Expected moderated relationship.

Hierarchical multiple regression analysis used a block entry procedure in which Block 1 covariates were gender, ethnicity, and social desirability; Block 2 was JCW-ID and perceived AC; and Block 3 was the JCW-ID × Perceived AC interaction terms. Intent to continue working as a JCW was the dependent variable. These covariates were chosen based on prior theoretical explanation about the relationships between the variables and turnover intent. The covariates of gender, ethnicity, and social desirability were examined in the current research; the larger research project, however, examined a wider breadth of variables but too many to enumerate here.

Using a cutoff α of p = .05, the initial regression equation was significant: for Block 1, R ² = .05, R ² _adj = .04, F(2, 207) = 3.81, p ≤ .01. When JCW-ID and perceived AC were entered into the equation in Block 2, they accounted to a significant amount of variance, R ² = .39, R ² _adj = .37, F(5, 205) = 26.65, p ≤.001. Additionally, the inclusion of JCW-ID × AC interaction term in Block 3 accounted for significant variance in the full model, R ² = .40, R ² _adj = .39, F(6, 204) = 22.96, p ≤ .05. The moderating effect explained 2% of the variance in individuals’ intent to continue working as a JCW beyond the variance explained by either perceived AC or JCW-ID (Table 3). Although 2% is a small effect size, an extensive review by Aguinis (2004) of empirical and simulation studies using moderating regression analyses reported most effect sizes between 1% and 2%. According to Aguinis (2004), failure to recognize even small effects can preclude researchers from understanding the source of differential relationships. Therefore, findings from this model suggest that the relationship between individuals’ perception of AC and their intent to continue working as a JCW is made even stronger when the JCW role is salient to the self-definition.

Table 3.

Hierarchical Regression Analysis Showing the Moderating Effect of Juvenile Care Worker Identity.

Variable		B	SEB	B	R ²	ΔR ²	ΔF
Block 1					.05	.05	3.81*
	Gender	.188	.119	.086
	Ethnicity	−.227	.144	−.087
	MSDR	−.704	.341	−.113*
Block 2					.39	.33	55.42***
	JCW-ID	.490	.060	.473***
	AC	.193	.061	.188**
Block 3					.40	.02	6.21*
	JCW-ID × AC	−.139	.056	−.138*

Note. JCW-ID = juvenile care workers identity; MSDR = Measure of Socially Desirable Response; AC = attitudes congruence.

*p ≤ .05. **p ≤ .01. ***p ≤ .001.

Mediating Effect of Care Worker Identity

The second analysis examined the possible mediating effect of JCW-ID on the relationship between intent to continue working as a JCW and perceived AC (Figure 2). As a mediator, JCW-ID was expected to represent the intervening mechanism that produced the relationship between intent to continue working as a JCW and perceived AC.

Figure 2.

Expected mediational relationship.

Initial correlation analysis revealed a significant relationship between the key variables (Table 4), establishing that there is an effect that may be mediated (Baron & Kenny, 1986). After meeting the assumptions for regression, a meditational analysis was conducted that examined JCW-ID as a possible mediator in the relationship between perceived AC and intent to continue working as a JCW. Following Baron and Kenny’s (1986) procedure, three regression equations were estimated for this mediation.

Table 4.

Correlation Among Key Study Variables.

Scale	1	2	3	4	5
1. Juvenile care worker identity	–	.34**	.55**	.03	−.05
2. Attitudes congruence		–	.38**	.07	.03
3. Intent to continue working		–	.03	−.18**
4. Tenure at current facility				–	.14*
5. Social desirability					–

*p ≤ .05; **p ≤ .01.

The first equation regressed JCW-ID (M) on perceived AC (IV). Results revealed that perceived AC affected JCW-ID, β = .309, t(235) = 4.97, p ≤ .000. The second equation regressed intent to continue working as a JCW (DV) on perceived AC (IV). Results indicated that perceived AC affected intent to continue working as a JCW, β = .385, t(238) = −6.42, p ≤ .000. The third equation regressed intent to continue working as JCW (DV) and perceived AC (IV) on JCW-ID (M). Results revealed that JCW-ID affected intent to continue working as a JCW, β = .481, t(231) = 8.58, p ≤ .000. The findings from these analyses suggest that the relationship between individuals’ perception of AC and their intent to continue working as a JCW is due, in part, to the mediating effect of the salience of the JCW-ID.

Discussion

The current study integrated person–environment fit and social identity theory for the purpose of adding to the understanding of the association between individuals, their perceived congruence with their work environment, and their work-related outcomes. A higher score on the measure of JCW-ID indicated the extent to which individuals defined themselves with that professional role and how salient that role was for them. This study also examined the culture of the work setting. This was measured using a scale that assessed individuals’ attitudes toward delinquency and treatment of juvenile offenders. Supplementary fit was posited to exist when individuals perceive similarity between their attitudes and those of their coworkers.

Results revealed that the idea of supplementary fit between JCW and the culture of the facility in which they work was supported. Perceived AC was a significant predictor of intent to continue working as a JCW. In addition, the results revealed that the relationship between perceived AC and intent to continue working as a JCW was stronger as a result of the moderating effect of JCW-ID.

The effect of perceived AC on intent to continue working as a JCW was significantly reduced when JCW-ID was added as a mediator. Individuals define their membership within the professional group by comparing their attitudes to those of their coworkers (Abrams & Randsley de Moura, 2001). Here, as individuals develop a stronger identity as a JCW based on their self-comparison to their coworkers, their intent to continue working as a JCW is likely to increase. Thus, the mediating effect found indicates that individuals’ perceptions of shared attitudes that contributes to their professional identity is the reason that perceived AC predicts intent to continue working as a JCW. Consequently, professional identity is useful in furthering the understanding of why perceived congruence with the work environment (i.e., supplementary fit) predicts intent to continue working in that environment.

Individuals’ intent to continue working was related to the extent to which being a JCW was salient to individuals’ self-definition and their perceived similarity between their attitudes and those of their coworkers. This underscores Minor et al. (2011) who found that coworker satisfaction was a significant predictor of juvenile correctional officer turnover; care workers who feel like they belong to a designated social group and who identify with that group appear to be more likely to continue working. Additionally, the positive relationship between perceived AC and intent to continue working as a JCW was stronger when JCW-ID was salient. It appears that working in a setting that is consistent with one’s belief system may be important to continue working in juvenile corrections, particularly when being a JCW is salient to their self-definition.

Current findings suggest that professional identity provides a useful explanation for the interactional relationship between individuals and their work environment. In addition, JCW-ID was indirectly associated with work-related outcomes, which is consistent with prior social identity research (Abrams & Randsley de Moura, 2001; Abrams et al., 1998; Cassidy, 2001). It is not possible to ascertain the exact nature of the comparative group that JCWs in the current study used as the basis for their professional identity; however, results do reveal that care workers strongly identify their professional role as a salient part of their self-concept. Findings from the current study also are consistent with previous person–environment fit research in showing a positive association between perceived congruence with the work environment and work-related outcomes (Cable & Edwards, 2004; Caplan, 1987; Johnson & McIntye, 1998; Kristof, 1996). Supplementary fit was present when JCWs perceived similarity between their attitudes and the attitudes of their coworkers related to delinquency and treatment of juvenile offenders. Supplementary fit also was associated with intent to continue working as a JCW.

Although tenure was not a significant predictor in the current study, the findings revealed that the longer the individuals worked at their current facility, the more they perceived their attitudes as being similar to their coworkers. Additionally, the relationship between JCW-ID and perceived AC was small and nonsignificant for JCW with shorter tenure. These findings are consistent with prior research that found a similar effect in a sample of secondary school teachers (Ostroff & Rothausen, 1997). Increased tenure is also linked with decreased turnover intent in juvenile corrections (Lambert, 2006; Tipton, 2002), and the current research demonstrates a possible mechanism to explain the relationship beyond the monetary (e.g., higher pay and retirement). Lambert and Hogan (2009) found that correctional workers who have formed attachments or bonded with an organization will have lower turnover intentions; in their study, organizational commitment was significantly related to decreased turnover intent. Perceived AC with coworkers might be one pathway in which JCWs determine the nature of the organization and, thus, their commitment level.

There are limitations to the present study aside from the routine cautions regarding cross-sectional and self-report data. Cross-sectional data can be limiting, especially when examining relationships and causality. The causal ordering between the relationships suggested in the research is only one of several possibilities. Longitudinal data would have a stronger ability to discern causality but due to the nature of the data collection and the time constraints on data collection in secure facilities, cross-sectional data were utilized for the current research. Findings from the current study also cannot be generalized beyond the specific juvenile correctional settings due to the absence of a random sample. In addition, perceived congruence was examined only at the facility level; some researchers suggest that work-related socialization also takes place at the subgroup level (Adkins & Caldwell, 2004; Ashforth & Mael, 1989). These limitations, however, also suggest areas of future research.

Future research could include unit-level and facility-level characteristics and compare JCW perception of congruence at both levels. Such a comparison would provide valuable insight into possible differences in the dynamics of facility subgroups. Additionally, unit-level data may uncover variation in the psychological support needs of JCWs assigned to different types of units (e.g., general population units vs. sex offender units vs. violent offender units). Another direction would be to examine how complementary fit might impact JCW decisions about turnover. Although complementary fit and supplementary fit are part of the same research tradition, the current study examined only supplementary fit in order to remain parsimonious and clear with our research goals and objectives. Now there is tentative evidence to support the connection between social identity theory, person–environment fit, and JCW turnover intent decisions. Further examination of the mediating and moderating relationship of supplementary fit and perceived AC, along with complementary fit, could help to shed more light on the issue.

Prior research on JCWs is also limited and what does exist does not examine the various reasons that individuals choose to work in juvenile corrections or why they stay in their current job. For example, geographic location could be a contributing factor, particularly in rural areas where working in juvenile corrections may be one of the few employment opportunities available. Lambert and Hogan (2009) found that external employment opportunities were not significantly related to employee turnover intent. More research, however, might examine if the geographical area can interact and constrict ideal employment opportunities and therefore be a mechanism that could illuminate reasons care workers continue in their job external to the facility and culture contained within. Another might be related to pay scale differences and work-related benefits. The current study did not collect data on salaries and benefits or on other employment opportunities available to survey participants. Further research would benefit from an examination of these factors as they relate to the high turnover rates that plague the field.

Results from the study also have practical applications; they demonstrate that the climate and culture of the work environment may be of particular importance to individuals’ decisions about their job at different points during their employment. One way to enhance the supportiveness of the work environment might be to implement mentoring relationships between new and experienced care workers. This would augment the socialization process and facilitate training and skill development. A caveat to this is that careful selection of ideal criteria for mentors would have to be a priority for facility administrators to ensure a good fit between older and newer care workers as well as ensuring that the seasoned care workers display the attributes and skills valued in the culture of the facility. Providing care worker opportunities to have a voice in decision making promotes teamwork and stimulates the work environment by creating an atmosphere of partnership (Bouffard & Little, 2002), and a mentoring program might help promote teamwork and partnership within the facility. The goal of research in the area of staff retention is to determine what can be done to keep qualified and competent staff engaged and working in the corrections field. Advancing the understanding of factors that facilitate the congruence of the work–environment through empirical research is one step toward this goal.

Footnotes

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The authors declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The authors received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

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