Abstract
The most apparent use of drones is conducted by the U.S. military and the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) in targeted killings of suspected terrorists in the Middle East. Targeted killings were the subject of tremendous media attention after the United States used a drone strike to kill suspected terrorist and American citizen, Anwar al-Awlaki, in the fall of 2011, in Yemen. Subsequently, drones have become a controversial issue in the United States, and opponents debate their utility at home and internationally.
Kenneth R. Himes, Order of Friars Minor (Franciscans) [OFM], a professor of moral theology at Boston College, who researches the ethical issues of war, critically analyzes the ethics of U.S. policy on drones and targeted killings in the Middle East in his book, Drone and the Ethics of Targeted Killings. His book is timely and important. Most Americans have only minimal knowledge about drones and their use in the War on Terror. Yet, according to a recent poll, 56% of Americans support drone attacks in nonwar zones areas like Pakistan, Yemen, and Somalia, which is an increase from 2 years ago (Pew Research Center, 2015).
Anyone interested in criminology, criminal justice, international terrorism, or security will find Himes’ book a must read since ethics is a critical component of the criminal justice system. This book helps its readers analyze if targeted killings by drones are ethical and an acceptable form of punishment for suspected individuals. The author uses his theology background to trace a historical journey through ancient Greece, Rome, Israel, and the second Intifada in Israel to reveal that targeted killings have occurred for centuries. Through an examination of the Christian tradition of tyrannicide and assassination, biblical references, and the views of prominent scholars and philosophers like Aristotle, Aquinas, and Liguori, the author concludes that target killings by drones are an ever-present, debatable ethical issue.
Professor Himes examines targeted killings from an armed conflict and a law enforcement paradigm. Using the armed conflict paradigm, targeted killings are a military action, which must conform to the just war theory. With the law enforcement paradigm, great care is utilized in the capture of suspected terrorists since due process dominates. Also, the author notes that international humanitarian law has yet to evolve to conflicts that are not between two states and that terrorists act independently to attack a state. The author reveals that the issue is further complicated by the idea that terrorists do not conform to all the criteria of a combatant by the Geneva Convention, which adds to the confusion of terrorists being considered citizens or combatants. If the suspect is a citizen, the individual is given more protection from a strike.
The author discusses the War on Terror in the United States through the targeted killing by drone of Anwar al-Awlaki who was born in the United States. According to Professor Himes, professionals in the criminal justice system considered the killing of al-Awlaki (a U.S. citizen) by a drone to be a violation of the Fourth and Fifth Amendments. This killing highlighted the lack of transparency in targeted killings, which is due to the killings being conducted by CIA. The author gives insight into both sides of the argument for and against the use of drones for targeted killings by compiling opinions and speeches made by former Attorney General Eric Holder, director of the CIA John Brennan, President Obama, and others.
The author provides an in-depth analysis of how targeted killings are selected and the manner in which they are conducted. The author explains how the Authorization for the Use of Military Force, legislation passed after 9/11, allows the government to use any appropriate force necessary against persons, organizations, or nations involved in terrorist attacks and to prevent future attacks of international terrorism. The use of force has to comply with the law of war. The government creates a “kill list,” which is created through a bureaucratic process.
The author stresses that for these attacks on the War on Terror to be ethical, they need to be done as interdiction of terror attacks to save innocent lives, not retribution. By explaining the ethicality of drones, the author emphasizes the unethical practice of signature strikes, which are not approved by a kill list, but based on certain behaviors of the target in nonwar zones. These attacks are further complicated and made unethical by the fact that they do not often target high-value targets or follow-up/double-tap strikes are implemented that target citizens who assist the killed targets.
The author notes that the definition of imminence is another issue in drone attacks. The definition has become too broad since terrorists’ threats are ambiguous and generally not imminent. The author ponders two ideas: first, that simply being a member of al-Qaida may not be enough to warrant a strike and, second, that the government needs a stricter definition for imminence, as the nation can become too reliant on drones attacks. This reliance can lead to a perpetual war due to less American causalities, collateral damage, and cost when compared to other methods.
Although the benefits are noted, the author proclaims the use of drones by the United States may create bad precedents since the United States ignores state sovereignty. The United States views itself as the leader of the global community. Professor Himes questions who decided that the United States is the global police force going outside its borders and launching a drone attack in a nonwar zone. The author further asks what our precedent sets for other countries who confront terrorism. The author suggests appointing an independent commission to review targeted killings. With a commission, ideally, reports will be compiled and published to increase transparency.
This book is an excellent read for those studying international terrorism and security who are interested in learning about military drone usage and the War on Terror. Through the law enforcement paradigm capturing terrorists and ensuring justice, criminology students can critically analyze how terrorists can be handled especially when the United States is acting as a global police force and when there is no imminent threat to the homeland. Conversely, the armed conflict paradigm requires a military action where the government acts as judge, jury, and executioner. This paradigm notes all the complexities of terrorism in regard to safety and feasibility of capture.
The book provides an in-depth analysis of targeted killings throughout the centuries and the history of the War on Terror. The historical background strengthens the arguments and provides further context and explanations of why targeting killings are utilized. The author incorporates perspectives for the United States on targeted killings by drones backed by prominent people. The book flows easily into each section with appropriate headings that facilitate an informative read.
The addition of a historical description of specifics to drones would strengthen the context of the book. Since the technology is new, some readers may have limited knowledge of drones. Also, the book employs acronyms throughout, which are listed in the beginning of the book; if the reader does not remember them, he or she must go back to the list at the beginning of the book. This becomes tedious for the reader since there are over 20 acronyms utilized. It would have been better if the author had simply used the complete phrases rather than use acronyms throughout.
Himes’ book details ethical impact of targeted killings by drones and how they affect the people of the United States and globally. The book adds valuable knowledge to the lexicon of targeted killings and the use of drones. It provides insight into the moral impacts of drone strikes from the perspective of not only the United States but also the effects on the Middle East. Since the study of ethics is a vital component when enforcing the law; providing safety for citizens; and creating policies, students, professors, and researchers in the field of criminology, criminal justice, and international terrorism and security will benefit by reading Himes’ book.