Abstract
Terry Kupers’s Solitary contributes to the scholarly examination of solitary confinement in three ways: (1) it highlights the deplorable treatment of incarcerated persons, (2) brings attention to the harmful practice of solitary confinement, and (3) it offers rehabilitative alternatives to isolation. Written by a forensic psychiatrist and Professor Emeritus of Psychology, this book can be used by other professionals and academics to understand the extent of harm associated with the practice of solitary confinement.
In Solitary, Kupers argues that the use of solitary confinement (or supermax isolation) and the practice of isolating incarcerated persons for long stretches of time are linked to deleterious consequences. This work represents the culmination of Kupers’s decades of work as a forensic psychiatrist, and the author draws on the data collected from more than four decades worth of interviews with and observations of persons incarcerated in isolation. Although Kupers’s discussion of the problems associated with solitary confinement is not a new topic of discussion, it is the use of the words and personal experiences of the incarcerated persons that help to set this work apart from others. Reading the personal accounts of so many who represent only a small percentage of the persons experiencing these harsh conditions provokes a visceral response from readers. Solitary not only contributes to the scholarly work in this area but also serves as a powerful piece in the advocacy for the abolition of the practice of solitary isolation. The problems associated with solitary confinement have been recognized since the 1800s, yet we continue to isolate individuals for extended periods of time. Relatively few come out of solitary unscathed. As Kupers notes, “no matter what mental condition a man is in before entering solitary, in my experience it is rare that he does not emerge in demonstrably worse mental and physical condition” (p. 32).
Kupers divides the book into three parts. In Part I of Solitary, the author focuses on the conditions of solitary confinement, the rationale for the use of solitary confinement, and the culture of punishment. Chapter 1 introduces the reader to the history of solitary confinement in the United States beginning in the first penitentiaries (e.g., Eastern State) to modern supermax prisons. Kupers then moves from Eastern State to Marion in the 1980s, which is the beginning of what he calls “the modern love affair with supermaximum security” (p. 25). This chapter is like a roadmap that shows readers how the United States arrived at the current form of supermax isolation.
In Chapter 2, the author expounds on the culture of punishment. Within supermax units, many of the policies promote abusive treatment of the incarcerated individuals. For example, Kupers noted that in solitary units, incarcerated persons are not allowed phone calls. This practice not only undermines correctional administrators own managerial goals, it also hurts the incarcerated by removing the connection to the outside world and their social network. As the author notes, and the research shows, individuals who maintain those ties during incarceration have fewer disciplinary problems. Thus, this form of punishment serves no penological purpose and is counterproductive. The culture of punishment is such that punishment has become the primary mode of dealing with rule violations.
Chapter 3 is an examination of the pervasiveness of racial inequities in prisons and in solitary confinement practices. Within the general prison population, African Americans comprise a disproportionate proportion relative to their makeup in the general population. This pattern is mirrored in the supermax isolated population with persons of color, particularly those with mental health problems, being consigned disproportionally to solitary confinement.
Part II of Solitary focuses on the severe harm that results from being isolated during incarceration. Confinement in isolation, especially for long periods, is associated with mental deterioration. In Chapter 4, Kupers notes that the symptoms reported by individuals in isolation are akin to symptoms of post-traumatic stress disorder. Further, isolation “decimates life skills” (p. 87) and impedes individuals’ ability to maintain quality relationships and interact with others prosocially.
Chapters 5, 6, and 7 explore the solitary experiences of several special populations in prisons. For instance, Chapter 5 examines the intersection of mental illness and prolonged isolation. Kupers underscores the alarming number of persons with mental illness housed in supermax units, an environment that exacerbates mental illness. These individuals are trapped in a vicious cycle in which symptomatology results in sanctionable behavior that lands them in solitary and solitary exacerbates those symptoms, which results in the application of more sanctions—typically more time in solitary. This situation is further exacerbated by inadequate or lack of mental health treatment.
The last chapter in this section—Chapter 8—is on what Kupers terms “SHU post-release syndrome.” This refers to the confluence of symptoms—including anxiety, hyper-awareness, and the need to isolate one’s self—that emerge from prolonged isolation. Kupers presents the narrative of several formally incarcerated individuals who illustrates the difficulties they face upon returning to the community. The crux of the discussion here is that formerly incarcerated individuals already have a hard time reentering the community, but this is amplified by the damage done by their time in isolation.
In Part III, the author offers an alternative to solitary that places emphasis on rehabilitation. Kupers outlines five steps to ending the “cycle of hostility.” The message here is that treating incarcerated persons as humans deserving of respect and agency will substantially improve prison experiences and life post-release. Chapter 10 underscores the importance of mental health treatment. Kupers recommends the adoption of the community mental health model, which includes rigorous mental health assessment along with easy access to mental health care and appropriate level of care to ensure that mental health needs are being adequately addressed. That is, rather than simply punishing individuals for disruptive behavior stemming from mental health problems, providing comprehensive treatment will go a long way toward managing “disruptive/disturbed prisoners” without causing further harm.
This book is very informative and readable. It provides a comprehensive overview of the conditions of solitary confinement and the damage it causes to persons incarcerated under these conditions. Thus, Solitary is perfect for readers without prior knowledge on the subject. I would recommend this book to corrections administrators, prison scholars, and students—both undergraduate and graduate.