Sustainable solid waste management can provide pathways for renewable energy generation. The Kingdom of Bahrain has witnessed burgeoning municipal solid waste (MSW) generation rate due to socio-economic development. The authorities of this Small Island Developing State, which is located in arid environment, plan to produce 5% of the total electricity demand from renewable energy sources by 2025 and then double it to 10% by 2035. The US Environmental Protection Agency’s Landfill Gas Emission Model software was used to estimate the generation of biogas from MSW at the Askar Landfill site. Results envisaged that maximum landfill gas (LFG) emission rates will be in 2020 following landfill closure by the end of 2019, as an intentional scenario, with a maximum electricity generation potential of 57.4 GWh that could provide power to 488 households. Revenues from carbon credits and electricity sales were US$97.8 million and US$64.8 million, respectively, for the period 2020–2035. The internal combustion engine exhibited the most viable option based on economic analysis of the cost of alternative LFG energy recovery technologies. Our work highlights the potential to use LFG-to-energy technologies to reduce the carbon footprint in arid climates for developing countries with substantial electricity subsidization.
AbushammalaMFMQaziWAAzamMH, et al. (2016) Economic and environmental benefits of landfill gas utilization in Oman. Waste Management and Research34: 717–723.
2.
AlexanderABurklinCSingletonA (2005) Landfill Gas Emissions Model (LandGEM) Version 3.02 User’s Guide. Washington, DC: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Office of Research and Development.
3.
AlhumoudJM (2005) Municipal solid waste recycling in the Gulf Co-operation Council States. Resources, Conservation and Recycling45: 142–158.
4.
Al-JoburiK (2018) Mapping Bahrain’s subsurface municipal solid waste. Arabian Journal of Geosciences11.
5.
AlsabbaghM (2019) Mitigation of CO2e emissions from the municipal solid waste sector in the Kingdom of Bahrain. Climate7: 100.
6.
Al SabbaghMKVelisCAWilsonDC, et al. (2012) Resource management performance in Bahrain: A systematic analysis of municipal waste management, secondary material flows and organizational aspects. Waste Management & Research30: 813–824.
7.
AminiHRReinhartDRNiskanenA (2013) Comparison of first order-decay modeled and actual field measured municipal solid waste landfill methane data. Waste Management3: 2720–2728.
8.
AyodeleTROgunjuyigbeASOAlaoMA (2017) Life cycle assessment of waste-to-energy (WtE) technologies for electricity generation using municipal solid waste in Nigeria. Applied Energy201: 200–218.
9.
BingemerHCrutzenP (1987) The production of methane from solid wastes. Journal of Geophysical Research92: 2181–2187.
10.
BoveRLunghiP (2006) Electric power generation from landfill gas using traditional and innovative technologies. Energy Conversion and Management47: 1391–1401.
11.
CakirAKGunerhanHHepbasliA (2016) A comparative study on estimating the landfill gas potential: Modeling and analysis. Energy Sources, Part A: Recovery, Utilization, and Environmental Effects38: 2478–2486.
12.
CIO (2019) Central Information Organization-Bahrain. Available at: http://CIO.gov.bh (accessed 10 December 2019).
dos SantosREdos SantosIFSBarrosRM, et al. (2019) Generating electrical energy through urban solid waste in Brazil: An economic and energy comparative analysis. Journal of Environmental Management231: 198–206.
15.
DumbleP (2017) Regional development and climate change mitigation modelling of municipal solid waste emissions in the Middle East. Water and Environment Journal31: 226–234.
GomezAZubizarretaJRodriguesM, et al. (2010) Potential and cost of electricity generation from human and animal waste in Spain. Renewable Energy35: 498–505.
19.
GunnersonCStuckeyDCGreeleyM, et al. (1986) Anaerobic digestion: Principles and practices for biogas systems, Tech. Pap.49. Washington, DC: World Bank.
20.
IPCC (2000) Good Practice Guidance and Uncertainty Management in National Greenhouse Gas Inventories. Hayama, Kanagawa, Japan: Institute of Global Environmental Strategies (IGES) on behalf of IPCC.
21.
IPCC (2006) 2006 IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories. In: EgglestonHS, et al. (eds) Prepared by the National Greenhouse Gas Inventories Programme. Hayama, Japan: IGES.
22.
IPCC (2014) Mitigation of climate change. Contribution of working group III to the fifth assessment report of the intergovernmental panel on climate change. Cambridge and New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.
23.
JassimMCoskunerG (2007) Environmental engineering education (E3) in the Gulf Co-operation Countries. European Journal of Engineering Education32: 93–103.
24.
JassimMSCoskunerGMunirS (2018) Temporal analysis of air pollution and its relationship with meteorological parameters in Bahrain, 2006–2012. Arabian Journal of Geosciences11.
25.
JassimMCoskunerGNazeerN, et al. (2019) Estimation of gas generation rate from municipal landfill site in Bahrain. In: The International Conference on Modeling, Simulation and Applied Optimization (ICMSAO’19), University of Bahrain, Bahrain, 15–17 April 2019.
26.
MønsterJKjeldsenPScheutzC (2019) Methodologies for measuring fugitive methane emissions from landfills–A review. Waste Management87: 835–859.
27.
NEEAP (2017) National Energy Efficiency Action Plan. Sustainable Energy Unit, Kingdom of Bahrain. Available at: http://www.seu.gov.bh/neeap/ (accessed 16 December 2019).
28.
OudaOKRazaSANizamiAS, et al. (2016) Waste to energy potential: A case study of Saudi Arabia. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews61: 328–340.
29.
RobertsonTDunbarJ (2005) Guidance for Evaluating Landfill Gas Emissions from Closed or Abandoned Facilities. Washington, DC: US Environmental Protection Agency Office of Research and Development.
30.
RodrigueKAEssiKCyrilKM, et al. (2018) Estimation of methane emission from Kossihouen sanitary landfill and its electricity generation potential (Côte d’Ivoire). Journal of Power and Energy Engineering6: 22–31.
31.
Schauer-GimenezAECalAJMorseMC, et al. (2014) Quantifying landfill biogas production potential in the US. Biocycle55: 43–47.
32.
TchobanoglousGKreithF (2002) Handbook of Solid Waste Management. New York: McGraw-Hill.
33.
The World Bank Group (2018) Climate Change Knowledge Portal: For Development Practitioners and Policy Makers [Online]. Available at: http://sdwebx.worldbank.org/climateportal/ (accessed 8 February 2018).
34.
USEPA (2004) Direct Emissions from Landfilling Municipal Solid Waste. Climate Leaders Greenhouse Gas Inventory Protocol. Washington, DC: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Office of Research and Development.
35.
USEPA (2012a) Summary Report: Global Anthropogenic Non-CO2 Greenhouse Gas Emissions: 1990-2030. Washington, DC: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Office of Atmospheric Programs.
36.
USEPA (2012b) International Best Practices Guide for Landfill Gas Energy Projects. Washington, DC: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Global Methane Initiative.
37.
USEPA (2017) LFG Energy Project Development Handbook. Washington, DC: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Landfill Methane Outreach Program.
38.
USEPA (2018) Inventory of US Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Sinks: 1990-2016. EPA 430-R-18-003. Washington, DC: US Environmental Protection Agency.
39.
WestlakeK (1997) Sustainable landfill - possibility or pipe - dream?Waste Management and Research15: 453–461.
XiaoliCTonjesDJMahajanD (2016) Methane emissions as energy reservoir: Context, scope, causes and mitigation strategies. Progress in Energy and Combustion Science56: 33–70.
