The Anti-Mattering Scale Versus the General Mattering Scale in Pathological Narcissism: How an Excessive Need to Matter Informs the Narcissism and Mattering Constructs

Abstract

The current study uniquely examines mattering and narcissism and reflects our contention that pathological narcissism involves an excessive need to matter and a hypersensitivity to being devalued and not mattering to other people. Specifically, we evaluated the proposed association between pathological narcissism and deficits in mattering by comparing the results obtained with the Anti-Mattering Scale and the General Mattering Scale. We also evaluated anti-mattering as a potential mediator of the link between narcissism and distress. A sample of 168 university students completed the Anti-Mattering Scale, the General Mattering Scale, the Pathological Narcissism Inventory, and a depression measure. Results confirmed that elevated scores on the Anti-Mattering Scale are associated with grandiose and vulnerable narcissism as well as depression. Mattering assessed by the General Mattering Scale had a weaker association with narcissism, thus highlighting the distinction between the Anti-Mattering Scale and the General Mattering Scale. Further analyses suggested that elevated Anti-Mattering Scale scores did indeed mediate the link between vulnerable narcissism and depression in keeping with anti-mattering as a factor that elicits the vulnerability of narcissists. Our findings attest to the uniqueness of the Anti-Mattering Scale and illustrate the need to consider the role of feelings of not mattering as a contributor to the self and identity issues and interpersonal sensitivity that contribute to pathological narcissism. This work also suggests the need to emphasize an excessive need to matter when assessing the self and when developing future measures of the need to matter.

Keywords

mattering anti-mattering narcissism vulnerability grandiosity depression

Introduction

Analyses of data gathered across time periods suggest that there is a rising tide of narcissism. Meta-analyses comparing scores from various years have found that narcissism levels have increased considerably over time based on analyses of the responses of American college students (see Twenge et al., 2008). What accounts for this rise? Explanations of extreme narcissism typically emphasize that narcissism is a form of self-inflation that reflects a defensive reaction to a core sense of feeling inadequate or defective. Akhtar and Thompson (1982) argued convincingly that overt narcissism is largely a form of compensation for underlying deep feelings of worthlessness.

The current study considers narcissism in terms of its links with the mattering construct. Most notably, we draw the important distinction between mattering versus anti-mattering and its relevance to narcissism. One overarching aim of this research was to evaluate and advance the notion that pathological narcissism involves an excessive need to matter and a hypersensitivity to being devaluated and not mattering to other people. Specifically, we evaluated the proposed association between pathological narcissism and deficits in mattering by comparing the results obtained with the Anti-Mattering Scale and the General Mattering Scale. This work is in keeping with the notion of narcissism involving an uncertain and potentially negative self-view, but instead of focusing on self-esteem, we consider the negative self in terms of perceptions and feelings of not mattering to other people.

This research incorporated the distinction between grandiose narcissism and vulnerable narcissism. Grandiose narcissism is an idealized form of self-inflation that involves a sense of entitlement and willingness to exploit people, while vulnerable narcissism is a core vulnerability built on a fragile and shaky sense of self-esteem (see Pincus et al., 2009). Flett et al. (2014) illustrated the distinction here by suggesting that grandiose narcissism is exhibited by narcissistic perfectionists who portray themselves as perfect; in contrast, vulnerable narcissism is exhibited by neurotic perfectionists who acknowledge they are imperfect and fall far short of perfection. Another overarching purpose of this study reflected our psychometric focus. Specifically, we sought to further establish the Anti-Mattering Scale (see Flett et al., 2022) as a measure with unique properties. Below we define mattering and anti-mattering and how they are assessed. We then discuss their relevance to narcissism.

Mattering Versus Anti-Mattering

Rosenberg and McCullough (1981) introduced the mattering concept. Mattering is the feeling of being important to other people. It reflects the need that people have to feel valued and know that someone is interested in them and is paying attention. Young people who feel like they matter feel like they are seen, heard, and valued. In contrast, feelings of not mattering to others usually involve perceptions of not being seen or heard or being valued and this could include feeling as if no one really cares. Clearly, the young person with a sense of mattering has a core positive element to the self, but, conversely, the young person without this sense of mattering can have a very negative or uncertain sense of identity. Mattering is assessed most commonly with the five-item General Mattering Scale (Marcus & Rosenberg, 1987). This scale has been used in numerous contexts (see Flett, 2018; 2022).

Individual differences in levels of mattering can reflect the presence or absence of positive exchanges, but it can also reflect feelings stemming from perceived or actual exposure to negative interpersonal exchanges. That is, the absence of the positive is not the same as the presence of the negative. Flett et al. (2022) described a destructive orientation called “anti-mattering” rooted in adverse interpersonal interactions. People high in anti-mattering feel insignificant and devalued as a result of neglect or the adverse actions of others. Anti-mattering is assessed by the five-item Anti-Mattering Scale (AMS; Flett et al., 2022). It has items such as, “How often have you been treated in a way that makes you feel like you are insignificant?” Feelings of not mattering assessed by the AMS are not simply the inverse of positive feelings of mattering (see Flett et al., 2022). Clearly, the person with a high degree of anti-mattering has affective and motivational tendencies and a cognitive orientation that differ qualitatively from someone with the type of positive feeling of mattering to others reflected by measures such as the General Mattering Scale (GMS). Evidence using various methods is converging to indicate that anti-mattering is a salient theme that can be at the root of significant distress (Deas et al., 2022). Other research with the AMS has further illustrated that mattering and anti-mattering are both clearly relevant but not equivalent (see Etherson et al., 2022; Giangrasso et al., 2022; Krygsman et al., 2022). This distinction between the AMS and GMS is potentially important when narcissism is considered, as we illustrate below.

A Portrait of Narcissists in Terms of Mattering and Anti-Mattering

There is still much to understand about narcissism and why it seems to be on the rise. In the current research, we sought to further illuminate the nature of narcissism and the narcissism construct by focusing uniquely on the association that feelings of not mattering have with narcissism. Similarly, the current work extends the mattering construct through our proposal that certain vulnerable people have an excessive and perhaps unquenchable need to matter. When viewed from this perspective, mattering becomes the need to feel special all or most of the time, and narcissism is a way of compensating for the unsatisfied need to matter by inflating the sense of importance to other people and to oneself. Moreover, if people feel like they matter when others give them attention (see Rosenberg & McCullough, 1981), the documented need for narcissists to get attention all of the time can be seen as needing to matter too much. Similarly, they may need attention and recognition from anyone and everyone of any significance. Accordingly, in the current study, we hypothesized that narcissism would be linked with a feeling of anti-mattering.

When considered within the context of anti-mattering, phenomena such as narcissistic injury become more understandable. The narcissist who is hypersensitive to signs and indications of not being valued by other people is someone who is likely to feel chronically unappreciated. They are prone to feel dismissed, disrespected, and devalued in ways that are discrepant from how they expect to be treated or ideally wish or need to be treated. This can fuel a sense of resentment and anger among vulnerable narcissists who feel they are being ignored in ways that are highly offensive to them.

There are several reasons why feelings of not mattering may be central to narcissism and attempts to understand it. First, research has established consistent links between deficits in self-esteem and deficits in perceived mattering to others (see Flett, 2022). Given that a failure to maintain self-esteem is clearly implicated in vulnerable narcissism (see Morf & Rhodewalt, 2001), it stands to reason that there is also a link between deficits in mattering and narcissistic vulnerability. A focus on the need to matter also provides a unique perspective on Morf and Rhodewalt’s (2001) claim that narcissists crave admiration, attention, and being regarded favorably by other people. If viewed from a mattering perspective, vulnerable narcissists are people who are not just seeking admiration; they also need to know that they are appreciated and valued by other people who care about them and see them as the special people they hope to become. This fits well with evidence linking narcissism with egosystem self-image goals reflected by an emphasis on personal needs being met through relationships (see Sheldon et al., 2020).

Second, repeated exposure to various forms of child maltreatment represents one acknowledged developmental pathway to narcissism. Keene and Epps (2016) showed that undergraduate students with a history of being physically abused had higher levels of shame and narcissistic vulnerability. Miller et al. (2010) showed earlier that vulnerable narcissism, but not grandiose narcissism, was associated with a reported history of verbal, emotional, and physical abuse and a lack of parental warmth. Low levels of mattering may be linked with vulnerable narcissism given that low levels of mattering are also linked with maltreatment. Flett et al. (2016) found in a sample of undergraduate students that lower GMS scores were associated with reports of various forms of maltreatment, including emotional abuse and emotional neglect. Various forms of personality dysfunction are likely evident as a result of being abused and being made to feel insignificant or perhaps even irrelevant.

Third, certain conceptualizations of narcissism suggest a potential role for low feelings of mattering to other people. Willock (1986) proposed in his conceptual explanation that vulnerable narcissism reflects having a strong sense of “the disregarded self.” Narcissistic children with this self-view develop the belief that others do not care about them; this is a type of low self-worth that clearly resembles feelings of not mattering to others.

Fourth, according to Prilleltensky (2020), mattering is about not only having value to others but also involves giving value to others. People who are highly self-focused and monitoring how significant they are to other people may have emphasized whether they have value to others, but they may not be engaged very much at all in proactively giving value to others by showing they care about others. Narcissism likely involves a very one-sided, unidirectional approach to mattering that is highly imbalanced and does not reflect relational reciprocity.

Finally, a proposed link between narcissism and the need to matter is in keeping with clinical accounts of narcissism. Mollon (1986) concluded that when it comes to narcissists “… the fundamental injury is an incapacity to evoke a meaningful emotional response in the caretaker” (p. 317) and this can become transformed into a dread of not mattering and worry about not being noticed by other people in general.

Previous Research on Mattering and Narcissism

To our knowledge, there is only indirect and equivocal evidence thus far suggesting an association between feelings of not mattering and narcissism. Otway and Vignoles (2006) documented an association between pathological narcissism and a measure of parental coldness with three items tapping themes that seem to reflect not mattering to parents (e.g., parents are indifferent to the child, do not seem aware of the child’s presence, and fail to convey that the child is important). More recently, Talmon and Ginzburg (2019) reported a link between facets of pathological narcissism and a self-objectification measure that taps feelings of being invisible. This association fits with AMS item content about feeling invisible and unseen by other people (see Flett et al., 2022).

In contrast, three other empirical studies have yielded equivocal evidence. Reece et al. (2021) developed a measure of mattering in organizations and reported that GMS scores were not correlated significantly with a one-item narcissism score. Rose and Kocovski (2021) found a weak and seemingly inexplicable positive correlation between GMS scores and a 10-item forced-choice version of the Narcissism Personality Inventory (NPI) in research on social self-compassion. This result fits with claims that the NPI is saturated with items tapping a more adaptive form of narcissism (see Ackerman et al., 2011). Finally, a new study of workers from India found that scores on the General Mattering Index (see Elliott et al., 2004) were associated robustly with total scores on a measure of the dark triad with subscales tapping narcissism, psychopathy, and Machiavellianism (see Soral et al., 2022).

The current study goes beyond these previous investigations with more extensive assessments of both the mattering and pathological narcissism constructs and our unique focus on the AMS. Narcissism was assessed with the Pathological Narcissism Inventory (PNI; Pincus et al., 2009). The PNI has four subscales that assess narcissistic grandiosity and three subscales that assess narcissistic vulnerability. The two higher order factors (i.e., grandiosity and vulnerability) are replicable and invariant across women versus men (Wright et al., 2010). Evidence suggests that grandiose and vulnerable narcissism are quite distinct and independent from each other (Miller et al., 2011). A feeling of not mattering seems particularly relevant to vulnerable narcissism, both as an overall construct and in term of its various facets. An association between anti-mattering and facets of vulnerable narcissism (i.e., devaluing, hiding the self, and contingent self-esteem) is quite plausible given the notion that both feelings of not mattering and vulnerable narcissism are reflected in a highly negative sense of self and intrapsychic personal identity. These proposed associations are in keeping with the analysis of early maladaptive schemas by Ziegler-Hill et al. (2011). They concluded that vulnerable narcissism is often a defensive reaction among people who feel a sense of disconnection from other people and, as such, they become invested in using interpersonal relationships to regulate feelings of self-worth.

We assessed mattering with the AMS and GMS. It was anticipated that the negative orientation inherent in anti-mattering would be most relevant and our results would vary considerably across these measures. Moreover, we hypothesized that anti-mattering would be particularly pertinent to vulnerable narcissism and its stronger link with deficits in self-esteem (see Miller et al., 2017). We also assessed depression to test the hypothesis that anti-mattering would mediate the association that vulnerable narcissism has with depression; narcissistic individuals who are particularly vulnerable should be prone to depression if they have a strong sense that they do not matter to other people. Specifically, we hypothesized that perceived anti-mattering represents an aversive form of interpersonal stress and possible narcissistic injury due to negative social exchanges connoting lack of worth that can, in turn, elicit depressive affect. Indeed, certain narcissistic people prone to negative emotional reactions may have an excessive need to matter and they may be hypersensitive and highly attuned to any indication that they do not matter enough to certain people.

Method

Participants

Our sample consisted of 168 university students (64 men, 101 women, 1 “other,” and 2 undeclared). Their mean age was 20.7 years (SD = 4.3). Participants were recruited through the undergraduate research participant pool at a large Canadian university. They received one credit towards their final introductory psychology grades in exchange for their participation. More than half of the students (55.4%) were in their first year of university. The most common intended major was psychology, which was reported by 27.4% of the participants.

Procedure

This study was reviewed and approved for compliance to research ethics protocols by the Human Participants in Research Committee at the university where the research was conducted. After providing their informed consent, participants completed self-report questionnaires in an online study. The following measures were administered in a random order:

Anti-Mattering Scale (AMS; Flett et al, 2022)

The AMS is a five-item unifactorial scale assessing the degree to which people feel like they do not matter to others. A representative item is, “How often have you been treated in a way that makes you feel like you are insignificant?” Items are rated from 1 (not at all) to 4 (a lot). Higher scores reflect higher levels of anti-mattering. Tests of the measure’s structure in various types of samples have confirmed it consists of one factor (see Etherson et al., 2022; Giangrasso et al., 2022; Krygsman et al., 2022). In addition, the AMS possesses good reliability and validity (Flett et al., 2022). AMS scores have been linked concurrently with higher levels of fear of not mattering and negative automatic thoughts about the self (see Besser et al., 2022). Typically, internal consistency alphas of .86 or greater are obtained across multiple university student samples (see Besser et al., 2022; Flett et al., 2022).

The General Mattering Scale (GMS; Marcus & Rosenberg, 1987)

The GMS has five items measuring perceptions and feelings of being important to other people (e.g., “How much would you be missed if you went away?”). Items are rated on a scale ranging from 1 (Not at all) to 4 (A lot). Psychometric analyses have shown that this scale is unidimensional, with good reliability and validity (Taylor & Turner, 2001). Flett et al. (2022) demonstrated that the GMS items loaded on a separate factor when considered together with the AMS items. Alpha reliabilities of .84 or higher were found for three separate samples of university students (see Flett et al., 2022).

Pathological Narcissism Inventory (PNI; Pincus et al., 2009)

The PNI is a 52-item scale composed of seven dimensions: entitlement rage (e.g., “I typically get very angry when I’m unable to get what I want from others”); exploitative (e.g., “I find it easy to manipulate people”); grandiose fantasy (e.g., “I often fantasize about being recognized for my accomplishments”); self-sacrificing self-enhancement (e.g., “I try to show what a good person I am through my sacrifices”); contingent self-esteem (e.g., “When others don’t notice me, I start to feel worthless”); hiding the self (e.g., “I often hide my needs for fear that others will see me as needy and dependent”); and devaluing (e.g., “When others don’t meet my expectations, I often feel ashamed about what I wanted”). Four dimensions comprise a narcissistic grandiosity summary score (entitlement rage, exploitative, grandiose fantasy, and self-sacrificing self-enhancement). Three dimensions comprise a narcissistic vulnerability summary score (contingent self-esteem, hiding the self, and devaluing). Research has shown that the PNI is multidimensional with sufficient validity and reliability in samples of students and clinical patients (Pincus et al., 2009).

Center for Epidemiological Studies-Depression Scale (CES-D; Radloff, 1977)

The CES-D is a 20-item measure that assesses the frequency of depressive symptoms over the last week. Sample items include “I felt depressed” and “I felt that everything I did was an effort.” Higher CES-D scores indicate a greater frequency of depressive symptoms. This scale possesses good psychometric properties (Radloff, 1977).

Results

Data Analytic Plan

First, descriptive statistics were computed for the total sample. Next, correlational analyses were performed to initially evaluate the links among the variables. We used Fisher’s z test to compare some of the correlations to see if certain correlations were significantly stronger than others. Lastly, a path analysis was conducted with AMOS version 27 software using maximum likelihood estimation procedures to test the hypothesis that anti-mattering mediates the link between narcissistic vulnerability and depression. We generated 2000 bootstrap samples to obtain 95% bias-corrected confidence intervals to examine if the indirect effect of narcissistic vulnerability on depression through anti-mattering was significant. If the confidence interval does not contain zero, then the indirect effect is considered to be significant.

Descriptive Statistics

Table 1 displays the means, standard deviations, and alpha coefficients for all measures. The mean for the CES-D in the present study was relatively high, exceeding the cut-off of 16 that indicates at least a mild level of depression (see Radloff, 1977).

Table 1.

Means, Standard Deviations, and Alpha Coefficients for All Measures.

Variables	M	SD	Alphas
Anti-mattering	11.17	4.02	.90
Mattering	14.96	3.42	.87
Narcissistic grandiosity	91.51	22.54	.93
Narcissistic vulnerability	83.02	25.91	.95
Depression	22.68	12.02	.92

Note. N = 168.

Both the AMS and GMS had acceptable levels of internal consistency with respective alpha coefficients of .90 and .87. The internal consistency of the AMS is more than adequate for a five-item measure. The obtained means are in keeping with the norms obtained for university students in previous research (see Flett, 2018; Flett et al., 2022).

Correlational Analyses

Table 2 presents the correlations among all measures. The results indicated that scores on the AMS and GMS were negatively correlated, as expected; however, the obtained correlation was not so high that anti-mattering would be redundant with mattering.

Table 2.

Correlations among Anti-Mattering, Mattering, Narcissistic Grandiosity and Vulnerability Summary Scores, All Narcissism Subscales, and Depression.

Measures	1	2	3	4	5	6	7	8	9	10	11	12
AMS
1. Anti-mattering	—
GMS
2. Mattering	−.37**	—
PNI
3. Grandiosity	.35**	.03	—
4. Vulnerability	.53**	−.17*	.80**	—
5. Entitle rage	.37**	−.10	.86**	.80**	—
6. Exploitative	.06	.10	.68**	.38**	.46**	—
7. Grand fantasy	.32**	.08	.84**	.65**	.58**	.46**	—
8. Self-sacrificing	.32**	.03	.78**	.59**	.60**	.43**	.59**	—
9. Contingent SE	.54**	−.19*	.73**	.94**	.77**	.28**	.62**	.54**	—
10. Hiding self	.49**	−.05	.71**	.83**	.60**	.41**	.67**	.54**	.67**	—
11. Devaluing	.36**	−.20**	.67**	.85**	.73**	.41**	.43**	.56**	.71**	.62**	—
CES-D
12. Depression	.58**	−.32**	.38**	.60**	.42**	.16*	.30**	.29**	.60**	.47**	.47**	—

Note. N = 168. *p < .05, **p < .01, two-tailed. The abbreviations are as follows: AMS = Anti-Mattering Scale; GMS = General Mattering Scale; PNI = Pathological Narcissism Inventory; Entitle Rage = Entitlement Rage; Grand Fantasy = Grandiose Fantasy; Self-Sacrificing = Self-Sacrificing Self-Enhancement; and Contingent SE = Contingent Self-Esteem.

Anti-mattering and narcissistic grandiosity had a significant positive correlation, but a stronger link was found between anti-mattering and narcissistic vulnerability (z = −2.04, p = .041). In contrast, mattering as assessed with the GMS was not associated significantly with grandiosity and it had only a weak negative association with narcissistic vulnerability.

Regarding the PNI subscales, anti-mattering had significant positive correlations with entitlement rage, grandiose fantasy, self-sacrificing self-enhancement, contingent self-esteem, hiding the self, and devaluing. The highest of these correlations was between anti-mattering and contingent self-esteem. As for the GMS, it was associated significantly with two PNI subscales; specifically, mattering was correlated with lower contingent self-esteem and devaluing.

As for the correlations with depression, anti-mattering was significantly correlated with higher levels of depression, while mattering was significantly correlated with lower levels of depression. Lastly, all PNI subscales were significantly correlated with greater depression. There was a stronger link between depression and vulnerability than there was between depression and grandiosity. Overall, anti-mattering had one of the highest links with depression in this study.

A partial correlation was computed to explore if the correlation between anti-mattering and narcissistic grandiosity would still be significant after controlling for narcissistic vulnerability. This analysis indicated that anti-mattering was no longer significantly correlated with narcissistic grandiosity after partialling out narcissistic vulnerability.

Mediation Analysis

A path model was evaluated using maximum likelihood estimation procedures to examine if anti-mattering mediates the association between narcissistic vulnerability and depression (see Figure 1). In this model, narcissistic vulnerability was the predictor, anti-mattering was the mediator, and depression was the outcome variable. Since the path model is saturated (i.e., df = 0), fit indices were not useful here. Instead, we were mainly concerned with the indirect effect of narcissistic vulnerability on depression through anti-mattering. Narcissistic vulnerability was positively associated with anti-mattering, which was, in turn, associated with greater depression. Narcissistic vulnerability was still positively linked with depression after taking into account the mediator. The 95% confidence interval for the mediated effect of narcissistic vulnerability on depression through anti-mattering was .05–.14 and because this interval does not contain zero, the indirect effect is considered to be significant. Thus, anti-mattering mediated the association between narcissistic vulnerability and depression.

Figure 1.

Mediational model of narcissistic vulnerability, anti-mattering, and depression. Note. ***p < .001. Standardized parameter estimates are shown. Error terms have been omitted for ease of presentation.

Discussion

To our knowledge, the current study represents the first study with a specific focus on mattering and pathological narcissism. As noted earlier, this research was motivated, in part, by a desire to extend the conceptualizations of both the narcissism construct and the mattering construct by proposing that an excessive need to matter is at the heart of the pathological narcissism construct. The view proposed here is that mattering has an element of excess that is found among people who need to matter at a dysfunctional level that is likely self-defeating and irrational. However, our main emphasis was further establishing the AMS as tapping an orientation that is quite different from what is being measured by the GMS by testing the hypothesis that anti-mattering is associated with pathological narcissism in general and the facet that taps vulnerable narcissism in particular. We also evaluated the hypothesis that anti-mattering mediates the association between vulnerable narcissism and depressive symptoms in university students.

Our correlational results confirmed the proposed association between feelings of not mattering and narcissism, but the magnitude of the obtained associations varied as a function of which measures were involved. Both grandiose narcissism and vulnerable narcissism were associated with feelings of not mattering, but the correlations were more robust (r = .53) when the focus was on anti-mattering and vulnerable narcissism. Clearly, our results showed that the associations depended greatly on the mattering measure being used. That is, higher AMS scores were associated with grandiose narcissism and vulnerable narcissism, thus suggesting that anti-mattering orientation is clearly relevant to pathological narcissism.

In contrast, when mattering was assessed with the GMS, we found only a weak negative association with vulnerable narcissism and no association with grandiose narcissism. Clearly, the AMS and GMS do not simply represent endpoints of the same continuum based on their respective links with self-reported pathological narcissism. Moreover, these data point to the possibility, if not the likelihood, that people high in narcissism have a hypersensitivity to cues and circumstances that make them feel like others are not valuing them as much as they need to be valued and must be valued. The notion they must be valued reflects the likelihood that mattering may be a personal imperative for many deeply insecure narcissists. If so, it can be inferred that perhaps there are individual differences not only in feelings of mattering, but also individual differences in sensitivity to mattering feedback and individual differences in levels of the importance of mattering to other people.

Analyses of the PNI subscales showed that results varied considerably across the various facets of narcissism. The highest associations were found between AMS scores and vulnerable narcissism in terms of contingent self-worth and hiding the self. The association with contingent self-worth is plausible given our working premise that feelings of not mattering are at the core of narcissistic vulnerability. This emphasis on the conditional sense of self suggests that some vulnerable people feel they will only matter to others if they meet certain contingencies (e.g., superior accomplishments).

The link between feelings of not mattering and hiding the self has several implications. This association is in keeping with evidence linking low GMS scores with a tendency to present a false self in the form of perfectionistic self-presentation (see Flett et al., 2012). Most notably, our current results point to the likelihood that many people feel like they don’t matter to others; yet, they keep these feelings and associated emotions hidden so that others may not realize the sense of disconnection that some people are harboring inside of themselves. This may apply to the failed narcissists described by Robins et al. (2001) who have been shamed into self-love because they feel undervalued and unrecognized by others. The association with hiding the self also has potentially important help-seeking implications to the extent that this tendency results in avoidance and hiding behind a false front.

Anti-mattering was associated with the facets of narcissistic grandiosity that assessed self-sacrificing self-enhancement and grandiose fantasy, but not the exploitative facet. We interpret this pattern of results as evidence of the need for highly narcissistic individuals to achieve and maintain an idealized image that sees their value being recognized by other people and clearly recognizable by the people they choose to interact with. Unfortunately, however, the self-sacrifice reflected in PNI items such as “Sacrificing for others makes me the better person” suggests that any giving to others is far from a selfless form of giving value to others.

The other key theme emerging from our analysis of PNI subscales is the association between feelings of not mattering and entitlement rage. The role of the mattering construct in feelings of anger and hostility has not been a pervasive theme in the mattering literature other than Rosenberg (1985) citing evidence that links feelings of not mattering with resentment and irritability. A link with a propensity to experience rage fits with the notion proposed by Flett (2022) that the need to matter can take a dark turn and be reflected in a type of “dark mattering.” This association with entitlement rage is also relevant to a theory of extremism and terrorism that couches extreme acts as a manifestation of the search for significance (see Kruglanski & Orehek, 2011). This view is similar to narcissism in that it involves behavior that is a form of compensation motivated by the frustration of needs and seeking self-affirmation.

Although these findings need to be replicated, it seems evident that our results have many significant implications related to both conceptual issues and assessment issues. Regarding elements of conceptualization, it is conceivable that for many people who are characterized by extreme narcissism, the core sense of inadequacy and worthlessness that is at the root of their external behavior actually is a reflection of a core sense of feelings of not mattering to others and a hypersensitivity to behavior from others that is interpreted as not mattering and not being valued by others. It has been suggested by some authors that narcissists have a never-ending mission to establish their self-worth and that “… narcissists seek affirmation of their competence above all else, even at the expense of being well liked” (Ryan & Bosson, 2001, p. 212). However, our results raise the possibility that certain narcissists have a deep-seated need to feel valued and cared for by others and this unmet need is central to their behavior. In daily life situations, it is not possible to control others and easily develop a sense of mattering to others, but it is possible for bright and highly capable individuals to strive excessively and compete excessively in an attempt to try to compensate for feelings of not mattering. It is also conceivable that for those narcissists who have been successful and have established a positive reputation based on their accomplishments and achievements that they have found ways to develop some sense of mattering, but this is tied to a false self rather than their actual self. These people seem to be exceptionally vulnerable when one considers this issue from a life course perspective. Rosenberg and McCullough (1981) proposed that the need to matter is particularly salient among older people and the fear of not mattering may emerge as a key theme among aging narcissists.

As for assessment issues, the current work further attests to the use and utility of the AMS. More generally, however, we feel these results bear on scale development issues for future consideration. At present, there is no published measure of the need to matter. Our results suggest that at an extreme level, the need to matter can become irrational and dysfunctional and for some people, this need may have to be satisfied all of the time or almost all of the time. If such a measure is developed, it should be associated significantly with measures tapping chronic feelings of insecurity and excessive reassurance seeking behavior.

We would be remiss if we failed to note the implications for the assessment of narcissism. We believe that the current results would have turned out quite differently if we had measured narcissism with a scale such as the Narcissistic Personality Inventory (see Raskin & Terry, 1988). The item content of this measure taps an inflated sense of the self that seems to be couched in terms that reflect grandiose self-esteem and self-evaluations of positive adjustment (e.g., I can usually talk my way out of anything. I know I am good because people keep telling me so). In contrast, the PNI seems to tap the inherent neediness and susceptibility to interpersonal feedback that is likely at the core of the interpersonal problems that tend to accompany extreme narcissism.

Returning to the current work, not surprisingly, our analyses indicated that elevated depression scores were associated with both narcissism factors and with lower levels of mattering and higher levels of anti-mattering. Stronger links with depression were found with the AMS than with the GMS. Our subsequent analyses focused on anti-mattering as a mediator and we established that feelings of not mattering assessed by the AMS operated as a mediator of the link between vulnerable narcissism and depression. This pattern of results accords with the general sense of narcissistic individuals being prone to distress after experiencing events that are quite incongruent with their psychological needs.

As we mentioned above, the current work has some clear assessment implications. Given the links established with pathological narcissism and depression in the current study, it stands to reason that anti-mattering merits inclusion when conducting clinical assessments of children, adolescents, emerging adults, and adults who are believed to suffer from narcissism and other forms of personality dysfunction. It is likely of great importance with some people to establish that their problems do not simply reflect shaky self-esteem and instead reflect a proclivity to feel unvalued and unappreciated and a sense that they simply must matter to other people. A hypersensitivity to cues and signals of not mattering ought to have a negative impact on the course of therapy and counseling when the therapist or counselor is perceived as not giving enough attention to the client with an excessive need to matter.

Of course, there are several seemingly important directions for future research. As suggested earlier, it is important to assess the replicability and generalizability of our findings. It is also important to examine narcissism and mattering while considering the many different ways of conceptualizing and assessing levels of mattering. Measures exist to assess mattering to one’s father, mother, and friend (see Marshall, 2001) and it is also possible to assess mattering in specific contexts, such as in the community or at work. This research seems vitally important in order to enhance our understanding of both the narcissism construct and the mattering construct. It also seems important to examine the roots of the link between anti-mattering and narcissism from a developmental perspective. Future research that examines early adverse childhood experiences (i.e., ACES) seems especially essential. Finally, in keeping with observations stated earlier, the strong link found here between pathological narcissism and anti-mattering raises the possibility that for some individuals, feelings of anti-mattering are combined with not only narcissism but also with other elements of the dark triad (i.e., psychopathy and Machiavellianism). As we have noted, we refer to this style as “dark mattering” to emphasize that the unmet need to matter can take destructive forms.

Certain limitations of the current study should be noted. First, one limitation of this study is that it is cross-sectional in design. The possibility that anti-mattering mediates the link between narcissism and depression, needs to be longitudinally examined, ideally at three or more timepoints. It is quite plausible to suggest that in terms of past developmental experiences, exposure to adverse social interactions conveying a sense of not mattering may contribute to the development of narcissism. Second, the results should not be generalized beyond this university student sample. Finally, heterogeneity should be explored, and this should include exploring possible differences due to race and ethnic status.

In summary, the results of the current study showed that elevated levels of anti-mattering are associated with vulnerable and grandiose narcissism in university students and these findings further differentiated the Anti-Mattering Scale from a general assessment of mattering to others. In addition, we found that individual differences in levels of anti-mattering mediated the link between vulnerable narcissism and depression. Collectively, we believe these results and the notion of anti-mattering represent a unique perspective on narcissism and related phenomena, such as the experience and expression of narcissistic injury. More generally, these findings attest to the potential role of feelings of being insignificant, unvalued, and unappreciated in personality dysfunction and the need to incorporate an emphasis on the need to matter when formulating treatment and counseling interventions and conceptualizing the developmental origins of severe forms of distress and dysfunction.

Footnotes

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The author(s) disclosed receipt of the following financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article: This work was supported by the Canada Research Chairs.

ORCID iDs

Gordon L. Flett

Taryn Nepon

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