Career-Related Teacher Support in Turkey: Scale Adaptation and Validation

Abstract

The aim of this study was to adapt the Career-related Teacher Support Scale to Turkish and to carry out validity and reliability studies. Data were collected from a total of 752 high school students studying in Turkey. Confirmatory factor analysis showed that the scale had an excellent fit. Students’ perceptions of career-related teacher support were also examined in terms of demographic variables. The findings showed that female students perceived teacher support more. Also, students with a high socioeconomic level had a higher perception of support.

Keywords

Introduction

Teacher support is defined as students’ belief that their teachers care about them and will help them in times of need (Trickett & Moos, 1973). For students who spend most of their time at school, teacher support is considered necessary in terms of both affective and cognitive outcomes (Lei et al., 2018). Past studies focusing on teacher support have reported an increase in motivation, positive emotions, and adaptability to the differences due to changes in education level (Liu et al., 2021; Martínez et al., 2011; Virtanen et al., 2020). However, few studies have addressed the link between teacher support and career development (Metheny et al., 2008; Perry et al., 2010). It is assumed that the reason for this is that career-related teacher support is the responsibility of career guidance personnel (Zhang et al., 2018). However, teacher support has a greater impact than peer and family support (Cheung & Arnold, 2014), and significant relationships have been found between teacher support and career components (Di Fabio & Kenny, 2015).

Career-related teacher support can be considered both in general and specific contexts. While general support regarding a career-minded outlook includes the academic studies and extracurricular activities of the students, specific support involves more direct career planning (Wong et al., 2022). This type of career-related teacher support includes providing a guidance service that considers the academic studies and private interests of the students for the purposes of visualizing a future profession. Thanks to these guidance services, specific steps can be taken that reduce students’ feelings of anxiety and hopelessness regarding their futures (Blustein et al., 2020). The role of the teacher in providing assistance to students struggling with hopelessness and indecisiveness in their final years of schooling cannot be understated. Therefore, it is essential that all teachers be responsible for the provision of career-related support (Zhang et al., 2018) as there is a direct relationship between increased teacher support and strong career goals (Bonneville-Roussy et al., 2013). Valid and reliable measurement tools are needed in order to better understand this relationship. Through analyzing the job market and assessing strengths and weaknesses of the students going into various fields, teachers can better determine what kind of support is necessary for student success. In addition, policymakers can make updates to their teacher education programs by identifying these needs. These requirements are also valid for Turkish students. There is a need to increase the awareness of all teachers regarding career support, especially in certain regions with higher populations of disadvantaged groups and where access to guidance teachers is very difficult. This study, therefore, aimed to adapt the Career-related Teacher Support Scale (CRTSS) by Zhang et al. (2021) into Turkish.

Conceptual Background

It is possible to talk about two basic theories that reveal the importance of career-related teacher support. The first of these is the Social Cognitive Career Theory (SCCT). This theory was developed by Lent et al. (1994, 2000) as an extension of Bandura’s (1986) social cognitive theory. Then SCCT contributed to Hackett and Betz’s (1981) explanation of career decision self-efficacy development. In SCCT, it is stated that variables such as self-efficacy beliefs, outcome expectations, and determining personal goals are effective in shaping an individual’s academic and professional development (Lent et al., 1994). This highlights the importance of social support, one of the variables of SCCT, in the career decision-making process. According to Gushue and Whitson (2006), the support provided by the teacher is positively related to career decision self-efficacy and career outcome expectations.

Another theory that highlights the importance of teacher support is career construction theory (CCT) (Savickas, 2005). According to the CCT, individuals are now busy working multiple jobs or change jobs frequently in line with the requirements of the age. This situation has transformed people into mobile workers with temporary assignments or project-based work. The business world does not guarantee the continuity of employees, and this leads individuals to career construction instead of a one-time career choice that follows them the rest of their lives. For successful career construction, individuals need to detail their distinctive personality traits and recruit teachers to support this process (Savickas, 2012). In the study of Di Fabio and Kenny (2015), it was reported that there is a positive relationship between teacher support and students’ resilience and self-perceived employability. Zhang et al. (2021) asserted that both theories (CCT and SCCT) had a serious impact on the design of the CRTSS. The reason for this is that CCT helps explain how individuals build their careers through personal and social constructivism (Savickas, 2005). It also reveals that observation and personal interpretation of an individual’s reality does not effectuate personal development. Accordingly, CCT emphasizes psychodynamic, environmental, and developmental characteristics (Savickas, 2012). An emphasis is placed on individuals knowing themselves when choosing a career path so that they can be aware of how meaning and purpose is built in their lives through their interactions with the environment and their learning (Maree, 2014). This is why supporting the individual in the process of self-discovery and awareness is so vital. Teachers can help students realize their talents, personal potential, and accumulate self-knowledge. This support is important both in terms of students’ academic orientation as well as identifying their preferences in career planning. In these theories, which refer to the importance of teacher support, it has been pointed out that students will have higher career expectations thanks to teacher support (Paa & McWhirter, 2000). Other studies supporting this expectation have also associated stronger teacher support with better career choices (Bonneville-Roussy et al., 2013; Lei et al., 2018; Virtanen et al., 2020). Deci and Ryan (1987) listed this as emotional support, instrumental support, informational support, feedback and validation, and support for autonomy. Using the teacher support and social support literature, Zhang et al. (2021), on the other hand, listed the forms of support that they claim to be most needed by students in three basic dimensions and based the CRTSS on this framework.

Dimensions of Career-Related Teacher Support Scale

Zhang et al. (2021) discussed CRTSS in three dimensions basing it on SCCT and CCT: a) enhancement of self-exploration, b) informational support, and c) emotional support.

Enhancement of Self-Exploration

According to the CCT (Savickas, 2005), the relationship with the environment is important in the development of the person. Individuals should be guided not only in choosing a career path, but also in knowing themselves, recognizing their interactions with the environment, and becoming aware of how they create meaning and purpose in their lives. Individuals need to believe that they are competent enough to perform the necessary behaviors (Bandura, 1986). Feelings of inadequacy can lead to low motivation and dissonance (Deci & Ryan, 1987). In such a situation, the individual must be made aware of the motivations, needs, and dynamics behind their choices. This aspect of career support is about showing students their own strengths in overcoming their disadvantages and helping them discover themselves for their ongoing development (Zhang et al., 2021). A positive passion for work is observed in individuals to whom this support is provided, which also helps in career development (Bonneville-Roussy et al., 2013).

Informational Support

According to Zikic and Klehe (2006), support offered by experts (career counselors and coaches) along with constructive advice can help individuals better evaluate career-related information and adapt to new conditions. With the informational support provided to the individual, control and competence in job and career preferences increase. By providing this support, teachers create indirect work experiences for their students by sharing their own experiences. This helps students learn more about the business world (Zhang et al., 2021). With informational support, students believe that their teachers are interested in their academic development and provide support for problem-solving situations (Liu et al., 2021).

Emotional Support

In his study investigating the predictors of career adjustment of adolescents, Hirschi (2009) drew attention to the importance of emotional support and stated that those who received positive emotional support had stronger career goals. In other studies that address the effect of emotional support on career outcomes (Zhang et al., 2018; Zikic & Klehe, 2006), it has been reported that positive social support makes it is easier to adapt to the unemployment transition, and individuals feel fewer obstacles in reaching their career goals. In another study conducted with African American high school students, it was reported that with the emotional support of the teacher, it became easier to overcome environmental problems in front of career goals (Gushue & Whitson, 2006). According to Di Fabio and Kenny (2015), teacher support contributes to youth resilience and self-perceived employability. This contribution is important for both CCT (Savickas, 2005) and SCCT (Bandura, 1986) because emotional support and associated emotional arousal improve self-efficacy perceptions (Liu et al., 2021).

Context of the Study

There are a number of measurement tools currently used in native English-speaking countries to determine levels of required teacher support (Farmer et al., 1981; Harter, 1985; Metheny et al., 2008). However, these tools do not focus on students’ perceptions of career-related teacher support, and there are problems in terms of applicability in different cultures (Zhang et al., 2021; Wong et al., 2022). Also, there is no instrument able to accurately measure the level of this support in Turkish society. Therefore, no evidence exists regarding the level of teacher support that students raised in Turkish culture feel about their career development. Recent studies on teacher support in Turkey are mostly in the context of perceived teacher support in the atmosphere of the school climate (Cemalcılar, 2010) or teacher’s social support (Yıldırım, 2004). In addition, there is no special support for students’ career development in Turkey. As in Western societies (Kingsbury et al., 2020; Samuel & Burger, 2020), students in Turkish society are mostly supported in academic development. For this reason, there is a serious lack of information surrounding the students’ feelings on their careers. It is thought that this lack of knowledge should be filled and that the career support needs of students should be determined along with the best type of teacher support.

Present Study

The relevant literature has shown that the social support offered to students is associated with cognitive and affective variables such as creative thinking (Zhang et al., 2020), the development of positive academic feelings (Lei et al., 2018), and motivation (Liu et al., 2021). In addition, Di Fabio and Kenny’s (2015) study includes findings that show social support has an effect on positive career development. This indicates a link between social support and career development. Based on this, it appears that teacher support is extremely important in the career planning of students. It is possible to have information about the supportive roles of teachers by revealing the perception of career-related teacher support. This is why the current study has aimed to adapt the CRTSS developed by Zhang et al. (2021) into Turkish.

In the study, the perception of career-related teacher support was also examined through demographic variables. According to several studies reporting that students’ perceived support differs according to their gender (Lei et al., 2018; Lietaert et al., 2015; Soenens et al., 2012), female students demand more teacher support than male students. Considering the demand rate, it was assumed in the study that female students would have a higher perception of career-related teacher support (Hypothesis 1). Studies have also reported that students need more support as they age (Levitt et al., 2005; Martínez et al., 2011). For this reason, it is assumed that career support perceptions of students differ according to their education level (Hypothesis 2). In the study, the assumptions that the perceived support varies according to the socioeconomic levels of the students (Atlay et al., 2019; Lareau, 2002) and that the educational status of the parents will lead to a differentiation in the perception of support (de Neubourg et al., 2018; Deci & Ryan, 2012) were also taken into consideration (Hypothesis 3- Hypothesis 4). Considering that the career-related teacher support literature is still very young, it is clear that there will be a need for further research on this subject. At the same time, university education is quite necessary in order to take part in any business or profession in Turkey. For this reason, it is assumed that Turkish high school students’ planning for university education will lead to a differentiation in the perception of career-related teacher support (Hypothesis 5). Therefore, the goals of the present study are two-fold: a) to adapt and validate the CRTSS Turkish sample and (b) to compare the CRTSS across demographic features. In the first part of the study, findings on the adaptation and validity of the CRTSS into Turkish are presented, and in the second section, intergroup comparisons of career-related teacher support are made in terms of demographic characteristics.

Study One: Adaptation of the Career-Related Teacher Support Scale

Method

Participants

The participants of this study consist of high school students in the Central Anatolian Region of Turkey during the 2021–2022 academic years. The convenience sampling technique was used in the selection of students. Accordingly, a total of 752 students, 497 (66.1%) female, and 255 (33.9%) male participated in the study. A total of 79 (10.5%) of the students were in the eighth grade, 206 (27.4%) were in the ninth grade, 261(34.7%) were in the 10^th grade, 111 (14.8%) were in the 11^th grade, and 95 (12.6%) were in the 12^th grade. While 74 (9.8%) of the students reported themselves as at a low socioeconomic status, 635 (84.4%) identified themselves as middle status, and 43 (5.7%) as upper status. The mothers of 316 (42.0%) of the students had a primary school or lower education level, 193 (25.7%) secondary school, 162 (21.5%) high school, and 81 (10.8%) undergraduate or higher education. Fathers of 223 (29.7%) of the students had primary school or below, 186 (24.7%) secondary school, 213 (28.3%) high school, and 130 (17.3%) had undergraduate or higher education. Students were also asked whether they would like to study at university in the future. Accordingly, 66 (8.8%) of the students stated that they were undecided about their plans for university education in the future, while 686 (91.2%) students stated that they were planning to study at university.

Instruments

The Demographic Characteristics Form

A demographic characteristics form was created by the authors in order to obtain the demographic information of the students. In this form, students were asked about their age, gender, grade level, their perceived socioeconomic status, educational status of their parents, and whether they plan to study at university in the future.

Career-Related Teacher Support Scale

CRTSS was developed by Zhang et al. (2021) for students aged 15–25 in the Chinese setting. The scale consists of enhancement of self-exploration (six items), informational support (five items), and emotional support (five items). Items in the scale are scored as 5-point Likert-type (1 = never... to 5 = always). Increased scores delineate an increase in career-related teacher support. Zhang et al. (2021) reported that the factor loads of the items forming the CRTSS ranged from .59 to .86, and the cross loadings were lower than .23. It has been reported that Cronbach’s alpha values of the dimensions that make up the scale vary between .90 and .92. Sample items of the scale are presented in Table 1.

Table 1.

Sample Items for CRTSS.

Factor	Sample ItemsMy Teachers at My School/College/University …
Enhancement of self-exploration	Help me identify my strengths and weaknesses
Informational support	Give me tips and tricks for workplace situations
Emotional support	Believe that I can make good plans for my future

Procedure and Data Collection

The translation and cross-cultural adaptation process of the scale was carried out according to certain steps (Beaton et al., 2000). Accordingly, CRTSS was first subjected to conceptual analysis by the author of the study in terms of cultural relevance. In the validity phase, the study was translated into Turkish and the back translation and language validity steps were applied. Cultural validity was taken into account during each stage. To ensure this validity, a comparison was made between the culture that dominates the CRTSS and the Turkish culture. Lee and Yuen (2019) highlighted the characteristics of teachers as informants, caregivers, instructors, advisers, and role models as a result of the study conducted with students in mainland China. In addition, in Chinese culture, teachers prioritize their students’ performance in risky examinations in the field of public duties, and this precludes career planning guidance services. Therefore, academic support is considered important in this culture (Tsang et al., 2021). Moreover, classrooms are often overcrowded, leading teachers to focus more on managing behaviors than on encouraging students to consider career possibilities (Wong et al., 2022). A similar culture prevails in Turkey. Teachers are generally seen as information transmitters, guides, and role models (Yılmaz et al., 2013). Teachers work to prepare students either for the high school entrance exam and university exams or for the test that gives them a right to take public office. This has reduced the counseling offered in schools to only academic achievement (Tuzgöl Dost, 2020). Crowded classrooms are also an issue for Turkey, so managing student behavior is a high priority (Bozan & Ekinci, 2020), not unlike the situation in China.

The CRTSS scale was translated into Turkish by three faculty members, two from the education faculty and one from the department of translation and interpretation. A unified analysis of the scale was conducted by the researchers to reach a consensus. Then, the opinion of a faculty member from the Department of Turkish Language Teaching was consulted to check the scale’s compatibility with the Turkish language and grammatical rules. The expert offered some suggestions and corrections for the Turkish version of the scale. This ensured that the terms and concepts were translatable to both cultures. Then, the relevant scale was back-translated by three other faculty members who were not in the translation team. Faculty members involved in the back translation process had a strong familiarity with Turkish culture. After the back translation process, it was observed that there were negligible differences between the original scale and its final form. An online form including the Turkish version of the CRTSS and demographic information was prepared and delivered to the students via Google Forms. The relevant form was sent to the students through the school principals. At this stage, in line with the ethics committee permissions, the school principals were contacted and online parent consent forms were sent to the parents. The link of the online form was also sent to the students of the parents who gave permission. Students were informed that participation in the study was voluntary, and that they were permitted to abandon it at any time. They were also notified that the data would be used for purely scientific purposes. All ethical concerns were addressed in accordance with the ethical standards of the 1964 Helsinki Declaration.

Data Analysis

The data collected within the scope of the study were reviewed in terms of extreme values, and reliability analyses were made with the normality tests of the data. The average scores of the answers given to the items that make up the scale and the standard deviations values were calculated. In the study, the content validity ratio (CVR) and the content validity index (CVI) values were calculated for the content validity of the scale. The Bartlett sphericity test and Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO) tests were used to calculate the sample size of the scale. Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was used to test the factorial structure of the scale, while the maximum likelihood method was adopted. χ²/df < 3; RMSEA and S-RMR <.10; AGFI, GFI, NFI, IFI, CFI, and TLI >.90 (Kelloway, 2015; Schermelleh-Engel et al., 2003) were taken into account as model compatibility values. The construct validity of the scale was examined by convergence and discriminant validity techniques and its reliability by Cronbach’s alpha and composite reliability (CR) values. All analyses performed within the scope of the study were performed with SPSS Statistics (ver. 26.0) and AMOS 21.

The Validation Framework

Kane’s (2013) validity framework was adopted for the purposes of this study. In this framework, inferences regarding the validity are taken into account in order to prioritize the collection of evidence in order to better interpret the argument (Whitney et al., 2019). Accordingly, Kane’s (2013) framework suggests that four inferences must be considered to ensure the validity of an assessment: scoring, generalization, extrapolation, and implications. Considering the examples that have utilized this framework (Jones & Wilkins, 2023; Gotch & French, 2020), three inference types were examined in the study and the accuracy of the arguments supporting these inferences was assessed. The implications of inference were not discussed, however, as they did not fall into the scope of the research. At this last stage in the validity argument, it is most important to evaluate the results or impact of the assessment on the learner, other stakeholders, and society in general (Kane, 2013). However, no intervention study was conducted for students who need career-related teacher support. The validation process adopted in the study has been summarized in Table 2.

Table 2.

Validation Process of CRTSS Scores.

	Definition	Hypotheses	Analyses
Scoring	Converting performance into an observed score	1. There is a relationship between the subscale scores that make up the CRTSS	1. Obtaining correlations between subscale scores (see Table 4)
Scoring	Converting performance into an observed score	2. Internal consistency analysis will reveal low error variance among the subscales that make up the CRRSS	2. Calculation of Cronbach’s alpha for subscale scores (see Table 4)
Generalization	Situation where scores represent (generalize) all test items	1. CRTSS represents the targeted content area	1. Factor analysis (see Figure 1, and Table 4)
Generalization		2. The sample represents the target group	2. Comparison of the sample with the population (see participants)
Extrapolation	Using scores as a reflection of real performance	1. CRTSS scores are related to students’ demographic characteristics	1. Study-2 analysis
Extrapolation	Using scores as a reflection of real performance	2. CRTSS scores can distinguish between groups of students who differ across a particular trait	1. Study-2 analysis

Results

Descriptive statistics

For the Turkish version of the CRTSS, the averages of the responses to the scale on the basis of factors and the standard deviation values are presented in Table 3. Accordingly, skewness (SE = .089) and kurtosis (SE = .178) values were found to be in the range of ±1.5 and were considered to have a normal distribution (Tabachnick & Fidell, 2013).

Table 3.

Descriptive Statistics of the CRTSS.

Scale	Factor	M	SD	Skewness (SE = .089)	Kurtosis (SE = .178)	CI (95%)
CRTSS	Enhancement of self-exploration	2.98	1.15	.125	−.904	2.89–3.06
	Informational support	3.00	1.20	.004	−1.028	2.91–3.09
	Emotional support	3.49	1.11	−.464	−.579	3.41–3.57

Validity and Reliability

Davis’ (1992) technique was used to determine the content validity of the scale. Accordingly, after the back translation of the scale, the faculty members who presented their views were asked for a 4-point scale ([a] the item is appropriate, [b] the item needs minor revision, [c] the item needs major revision, and [d] the item is inappropriate). In this technique, the number of experts who chose option (a) and (b) is divided by the total number of experts to obtain the CVI for the item, and the value of .80 is accepted as a criterion instead of comparing this value with a statistical criterion (Yurdugül, 2005). The 99% value obtained within the scope of this study showed that this criterion was met.

KMO and Bartlett sphericity tests were used to determine the scale’s suitability for factor analysis. The KMO test resulted in .968, and Bartlett’s sphericity test was significant (χ² = 11680.173, df = 120, p < .01). Considering these criteria, it is understood that the study data are factorable. CFA was used to test the factorial structure of the scale. In the first analysis, where no changes were made, the values obtained for the three-factor model were as follows: χ² (101) = 629.849, p < .01, χ²/df = 6.236, RMSEA = .08 [90% CI: .078; .089], S-RMR = .03, AGFI = .86, NFI = .94, IFI = .95, GFI = .88, CFI = .95, and TLI = .94. Although these obtained values are within the acceptable limits, it was observed that the χ²/df value exceeded the specified criterion significantly. Accordingly, the way of combining error terms was preferred. However, this study aimed not to combine the error terms only by looking at the fit indices. Then data were collected from students who grew up in specific cultures with the help of self-report scales. Therefore, the factorial structure may vary from one culture to another. In addition, since the items under the same factor measure similar situations, there is no harm in combining error terms (Hermida, 2015). Then the error terms between #1 (My teachers at my school/college/university … hope that I can have good career prospects) and #2 (My teachers at my school/college/university … believe that I am qualified for the work they assign to me), #2 and #3 (My teachers at my school/college/university… believe that I can successfully finish the tasks [e.g., finish homework, organizing activities, and participating competitions]) with #1 and #3 items in the emotional support factor are combined (Figure 1). Thus, the model fit values obtained in the final analysis were as follows: χ²/df = 2.382, RMSEA = .06 [90% CI: .057; .070], S-RMR = .02, AGFI = .90, NFI = .96, IFI = .97, GFI = .93, CFI = .97, and TLI = .96. Excellent fit has been reached with these values (Kline, 2011).

Figure 1.

CFA results for the final model.

The factor loads of the three-factor model for the Turkish version of the CRTSS range from .731 to .827. After examining the factorial structure of the scale, convergent validity and discriminant validity were examined, and Cronbach’s alpha and CR values were calculated for reliability. The values obtained in this context are presented in Table 4. It is possible to say that convergence validity is ensured depending on the factor loads and average variance extracted (AVE) values of the items forming the scale being above .50 (Fornell & Larcker, 1981). Since the square root of the AVE values of the factors was greater than the correlation values between the factors, discriminant validity was guaranteed. The reliability of the scale was determined by examining the Cronbach’s alpha and CR coefficients. In this respect, it is possible to say that both Cronbach’s alpha and CR values were above .70, thus ensuring reliability (Gefen et al., 2000; Hair et al., 1998).

Table 4.

Factor Loading, Average Variance Extracted (AVE), and Reliability.

Item Number	Factor Loading	Cronbach’s Alpha	CR	AVE	Enhancement of Self-Exploration	Informational Support	Emotional Support
Enhancement of self-exploration
I1	.738	.94	.91	.614	.783
I2	.780
I3	.827
I4	.798
I5	.748
I6	.807
Informational support
I7	.795	.92	.90	.617	.784^a	.785
I8	.825
I9	.824
I10	.723
I11	.756
Emotional support
I12	.731	.90	.89	.590	.748^a	.757^a	.768
I13	.764
I14	.778
I15	.790
I16	.777

^ap < .01.

Discussion

In this study, the factor structure, validity, and reliability of the Turkish version of the CRTSS were discussed. As a result of the examination, it was determined that the Turkish version of the CRTSS had a three-factor structure, as in the original version, and it was found to have appropriate values in terms of validity and reliability. The obtained values are also very close to the values in the original version of CRTSS. No item was added to the original CRTSS, and it was concluded that the content validity of the items forming the scale was achieved for Turkish culture. It is possible to say that the basic theoretical framework that constitutes the CRTSS with the validity and reliability analyses made within the scope of the study is also valid for Turkish culture.

It is possible to say that CRTSS, which has been adapted to the Turkish culture, is more suitable for Turkish culture when compared with other career development research instruments in the literature (Farmer et al., 1981; Metheny et al., 2008). As Zhang (2006) states, teachers in Eastern and Western cultures may have different interactions with their students. The teacher-centered approach and career orientation that is dominant in Turkish culture is not present in the western style. Giving career information to the classroom rather than working alongside the individual student is a common trend in Turkey. In addition, teachers, whether they work in public schools or in the private sector, are under a heavy workload and have little time to think on other professions. Because of this, as in China (Wong et al., 2022), external speakers are invited to share, and “career days” are offered. In short, we think that the Turkish version of the adapted scale is appropriate. Therefore, both the evidence obtained with the adaptation of the CRTSS and the evaluations in terms of scope show that the Turkish version of the CRTSS can be used as a valid and reliable measurement tool.

Study Two: Investigation of CRTSS in Terms of Demographic Characteristics

Method

In this part of the study, the Turkish version of the CRTSS was used to reveal the teacher support that the participants reported according to their demographic characteristics.

Data Analysis

The normality tests were repeated with the control of outliers and extreme values performed within the scope of study-1. It has been observed that there are no outliers or extreme values. As for the normality tests, the skewness and kurtosis values of each item that make up the Turkish version of the CRTSS were found to be between ±1.5 (Tabachnick & Fidell, 2013). In addition, the skewness and kurtosis values of the overall scale were between −.026 and −.813. In the study, the equality of variances was checked with Levene’s test, and the scores obtained according to the demographic characteristics of the participants were analyzed with the independent samples t test and ANOVA analysis. In the original CRTSS, it was stated that it would be more accurate to use the total score from the scale (Zhang et al., 2021). For this reason, the scores obtained according to the demographic characteristics of the participants were calculated over the total score. The Cohen’s d or η² effect sizes were taken into account in the examinations. Statistical significance was evaluated at the p < .05 level.

Results

Hypothesis 1

Firstly, the CRTSS scores of the students were examined in order to identify potential differences correlating to gender. In this context, the independent sample t test results showed that female and male students’ perceptions of career-related teacher support differ (t₍₇₅₀₎ = 2.13, p = .03, Cohen’s d = .16). Moreover, the scores of female students were higher than the scores of male students.

Hypothesis 2

In the second hypothesis of the study, it was tested whether there was a significant difference between the students’ grade level and their perceptions of career-related teacher support. The ANOVA results in this context showed that the perception of career-related teacher support did not change according to the grade levels of the students (F_(4,747) = 2.09, p = .08).

Hypothesis 3

In the third hypothesis, it was tested whether the CRTSS scores differed according to the socioeconomic status of the students. As a result of the ANOVA in this context, it was found that the perception of career-related teacher support differs according to the socioeconomic status of the students. Since the equality of variances was not ensured, Tamhane’s T2, one of the post-hoc tests, was used, and it was determined that students from high socioeconomic status had a higher perception of career-related teacher support than students from low socioeconomic status (F _(2,749) = 4.48, p = .01, η² = .11).

Hypothesis 4

In the fourth hypothesis of the study, it was tested whether the perception of career-related teacher support differed according to the education level of the parents. ANOVA was carried out separately according to the education level of the mother and then the education level of the father. Analysis results showed that the mother’s education level is important in career perception (F_(3,748) = 4.14, p = .006, η² = .16). Scheffe’s post-hoc test showed that students whose mothers had undergraduate and higher education levels had significantly lower perceptions of career-related teacher support. A similar finding is valid for the father’s education level (F_(3,748) = 3.22, p = .02, η² = .12). In other words, career perception differs depending on the education level of the parents.

Hypothesis 5

In the last hypothesis of the study, it was tested whether the career perception of the students changed depending on their desire to get university education in the future. In this context, the results of the independent sample t test showed that students’ perceptions of career-related teacher support differ according to the university education plan in the future (t₍₇₅₀₎ = 2.78, p = .00, Cohen’s d = .36). Accordingly, students who plan to receive university education in the future experience more intense career-related teacher support.

Discussion

In this study, Turkish high school students’ perceptions of career-related teacher support were examined in terms of demographic variables. As a result of the examination, it was seen that female students’ perception of career-related teacher support was higher than the perception of male students. The literature has put forward different arguments for female students’ demand for more teacher support Younger et al. (1999). Teachers are less tolerant of male students’ mischief, which leads to a decrease in male students’ perception of teacher support. On the other hand, Brozo (2002) has argued that the school curriculum is more tailored to female students than to males. Therefore, girls observe more teacher support. Lietaert et al. (2015) also drew attention to student participation in the relationship between teacher support and gender. Male students show lower participation and therefore perceive lower teacher support. However, it should be taken into account that all students need teacher support regarding their careers. Considering the risk that male students have in terms of academic outcomes (Hamre & Pianta, 2001), it is possible to say that the need for career planning and guidance is higher. Therefore, although the obtained finding is supported in the literature, it also points to a situation that should be emphasized.

In the second hypothesis of the study, it was assumed that as the grade level of the students’ changes, the perceived teacher support will also change. However, the results of the analysis showed that the perceived teacher support in the first years of transition from middle school to high school was almost at the same level. Virtanen et al. (2020) reported that students in the transition period from secondary school to high school need peer and social support more than teacher support, so there may be a decrease in the perception of teacher support. Therefore, it is possible to say that the need for teacher support in the high school period does not differ according to the grade level and the existing need continues without any change.

In the third hypothesis, it was assumed that the perception of support changed according to the socioeconomic status of the students. There are very limited studies in the literature on the perception of teacher support by socioeconomic status (Atlay et al., 2019; Lareau, 2002). These limited studies reported that the perception of teacher support is low when the socioeconomic status of the students is high. According to Lareau (2002), parents with high socioeconomic status raise their children according to the “concerted cultivation” model. In this model, children are encouraged to think more creatively and to ask difficult questions. This causes them to demand more support from their teachers, but to be more critical toward them as well. Therefore, students with high status tend to be dissatisfied with the support provided to them. However, the findings obtained in the current study are in the opposite direction. In the Turkish education system, private school and “private teacher” education are quite common in addition to public schools. It is accepted that students who study in a private school or who have a private teacher are more privileged. Because these students are dealt with individually and more detailed guidance is given on career planning. Students who cannot reach their teacher in crowded classrooms receive more support from the private teacher who comes to their home for teaching. Therefore, this finding differs from studies conducted in western culture. High levels of teacher support in Turkish society are associated with high social status.

In the final hypothesis of the study, it was assumed that the educational levels of the parents would lead to a differentiation in the perception of career-related teacher support. According to the self-determination theory (Deci & Ryan, 2012), students tend to think more independently when they are supported by their families, and this contributes to autonomous thinking regarding their future. Such support is also offered by more educated parents (de Neubourg et al., 2018). Teacher support may be perceived as lower for students who are supported by their educated parents. Or, the support received from the teacher may have been below expectations. On the other hand, students who cannot get support from their parents regarding their career tend to meet this need from their teacher. The obtained finding is explained as one of the factors of human capital in sociological research literature (Haeberlin et al., 2004). Accordingly, higher parent education is positively associated with the development of career adaptability (Hirschi, 2009). From this point of view, it would not be wrong to say that the teacher is taken as a role model for students with low parental education level. It is seen as a natural expectation for a child who grows up in a family with a lower education level to expect career support from his/her teacher.

In the last hypothesis of the study, it was assumed that students' perceptions of career-related teacher support would change according to their plans for university education in the future. The findings showed that those who desire to get university education in the future have a higher perception of support. Perception of social support is the emotional and behavioral feedback that the student receives from the outside world (Rueger et al., 2010). Accordingly, the support from the teacher significantly affects the career choices of the student (Perry et al., 2010). In the current study, it was observed that students who have a career plan related to university education also have a high perception of career-related teacher support. However, a student who does not have a plan for university education may feel that support is not provided even if this support is offered to him or her because there is no support request. In other words, teacher support is very important for the student who sets a career goal for student. However, this has not been adequately researched or seen as a focal point in the literature.

Limitations and Implications of Study One and Study Two

This study did experience some limitations. First of all, convergence and discriminant validity techniques were used to test the validity of the CRTSS. Cross validation can be used in further analysis of the CRTSS. Second, in the current study, after the scale adaptation, analyses were made in terms of demographic variables. No analysis was made on the separate sub-dimensions of the CRTSS in the examinations. Therefore, in this study, we do not know in which dimension of the CRTSS students need more teacher support. In order to understand this, modeling studies that deal with mutual effects can be carried out.

Third, in the current study, the perception of career-related teacher support was reported based on student reports. However, the perception of support may be low for a student who does not understand or underestimate this support despite receiving support. For this reason, the question of “whether the perceived support is always or only for once” can be asked.

Finally, in this study, the perception of support of students who have a career plan for university education in the future was examined for the first time. However, the results obtained need confirmation.

This study, which deals with career-related teacher support in terms of demographic variables, contributed theoretically to the SCCT (Lent et al., 2000), which reveals the importance of teacher in career support. As a matter of fact, the findings revealed that there are some disadvantaged groups who need greater teacher support. Parental support and social status can be considered as predictive variables in studies to be conducted in these groups based off of evidence regarding the social status, parental support and future plan of the student. This presented evidence shows that social factors (Gushue & Whitson, 2006) are important in career outcomes for both SCCT and CCT.

The findings obtained from the study also provide important implications for future research and educational practices. First of all, it was noted in the study that career-related teacher support perception differed according to the gender of the students. It is necessary for teachers to be aware of this trend and to offer needed support to all their students in their career planning. Considering that students with a low level of parental education need more teacher support, it is important to make support plans.

Inevitably students coming from families of low socioeconomic backgrounds will seek extra support from their teachers (Wentzel et al., 2010). These requests may differ from student to student, a situation resulting from the accumulation of economic and cultural capital that Bourdieu (1986) discussed. For this reason, it is imperative to raise awareness on the necessity of career support.

Conclusion

In this study, the psychometric properties of the Turkish version of the CRTSS were examined with the participation of 752 Turkish high school students from different socioeconomic levels. As a result of the examination, the structure of the CRTSS consisting of 16 items and three dimensions was confirmed and it was determined that it showed perfect model fit. According to the demographic characteristics of the students, their perceptions of career-related teacher support were analyzed by group comparison analysis and it was observed that there were differences between the groups according to gender, socioeconomic status, education level of parents, and future university education plans. The findings showed that the CRTSS provides scoring, generalization, and extrapolation evidence for its use in the Turkish sample.

NOTE: The term private teacher is widely used in Turkey. Private teachers provide personalized instruction at the student’s home for an extra fee. However, since these fees are quite high, only students with good socioeconomic status benefit from this privilege.

Footnotes

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Ethical Approval

Ethical approval for the research written permission was also granted by the Ethics Committee of Selçuk University (Decision No:2022/34).

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