Does the Public Service Motivation Model Hold in the Caribbean?

Abstract

Researchers in public administration for the past few decades are interested in exploring how public service motivation (PSM) influences turnover intentions. This study puts the theory of PSM to test in a different cultural context and explores the relationship between PSM and leadership on turnover intentions via person-organization fit (P-O fit) in public sector employees from Trinidad and Tobago and Barbados. Results of structural equation modeling indicate a significant negative relationship between senior leadership and turnover intentions, but a positive and significant relationship between PSM and turnover intentions. The positive effects of PSM on turnover are different from the Western models of motivation in the public sector. Results also show a partial mediation of PSM and turnover intentions via P-O fit. This research highlights the need for studying leadership, motivation, and turnover by utilizing a cultural and value lens to examine and understand employee behaviors in public organizations outside of North America.

Keywords

public service motivation leadership turnover intentions person-organization fit International Public Administration

Introduction

Significant interest in public service motivation (PSM) research has garnered academics’ and practitioners’ attention over the last quarter century (Battaglio & Gelec, 2017; Breaugh et al., 2018; Caillier, 2007; Chen & Hsieh, 2015; Leisink & Steijn, 2009; Liu et al., 2015; Mann, 2006; Paarlberg et al., 2008; Perry, 2000; Perry et al., 2010; Perry & Vandenabelle, 2015; Piatak et al., 2020; Taylor & Westover, 2011; Vandenabeele, 2008). The proliferation of empirical works in PSM can be accredited to the classic work by Perry and Wise (1990) who coined this term, using three core dimensions of normative, rational, and affective motives. Currently, public managers are interested in learning how PSM impacts challenges faced in human resource management (HRM). Some challenges include motivation, performance, engagement, recruitment, retention, cost containment, scarce resources, contracting, and retirement (Lane, 2001; Minto-Coy & Berman, 2016; Osborne & Gaebler, 1992; Roach & Davis-Cooper, 2012).

Other contemporary scholars have asserted that PSM can be used as a strategic HRM tool to attract individuals best suited for public sector work, and examine their rational, affective and normative motivations (Carpenter et al., 2012; Clerkin & Coggburn, 2012; Perry, 2000; Perry et al., 2010; Perry & Wise, 1990). These scholars hypothesize that employees with higher levels of PSM have higher levels of job satisfaction, performance, commitment, and lower turnover intentions compared to those with lower PSM. If this is true, then, it may be feasible to use PSM as a strategic tool for all aspects of public HRM functions and activities. However, PSM research is not consistent across public employees’ work behaviors and attitudes. Some scholars claim PSM promotes retention in public employment, and higher levels of PSM are linked with lower turnover (Campbell et al., 2014; Naff & Crum, 1999); yet others report the opposite (Moynihan & Pandey, 2007a, 2007b).

There is emerging PSM literature generated from non-Western fronts that point to conflicting findings across different contexts. This controversy reinforces the need to re-assess results and to challenge what dominates within a Western frontier. Recent studies introduce the dark side of PSM and suggest that public workers with high PSM may self-sacrifice themselves for their organizations and society to the extent that it can undermine their health and well-being (Johns, 2010; Koumenta, 2015; Miraglia & Johns, 2016; Wright et al., 2017). These studies highlight the negative individual and organizational outcomes such as voluntary and involuntary absenteeism, lack of commitment and withdrawal, disengagement, frustrations, increasing stress, burnout, and presenteeism (i.e., employees go to work even when they are ill) affecting employees’ health, wellbeing, and increasing work-family conflicts (Johns, 2010; Koumenta, 2015; Miraglia & Johns, 2016; Wright et al., 2017).

Such areas of controversy and disagreement reinforce the need to examine PSM in new contexts. More recently, a few scholars have indicated the variability in PSM’s conceptual definition, operationalization, antecedents, and consequences, supporting how it varies from its original theoretical premise (Giauque et al., 2011; Houston, 2011; Kim & Hong, 2013; Vandenabeele, 2008; Vandenabeele & Van de Walle, 2008). In East-Asia for example, public employees are mindful of the importance of their social environment and relationships, which are crucial in shaping their careers (Liu et al., 2011). Additionally, cultural and diverse practices across developing nations set the need for PSM studies in different geographic contexts (Van der Wal, 2015).

Considering the above, this study utilizes two overlapping reasons to support the context for this study, nations in the Caribbean. First, scholars in recent decades persistently argue for future studies to explore the universality of PSM and its claims beyond US and other mainstream settings. Second, there is a need to shift the attention of international comparative administration research away from Anglo-US and European developed countries as their basis for comparison and introduce new settings, such as developing nations in the Caribbean. Thus, these arguments support the need to address the dearth of scholarship on PSM in developing nations or traditional societies (Van der Wal, 2015). Such countries or societies may share different experiences because of their unique historical evolutions, governance, cultural conventions, and norms as well as institutional frameworks (Liu, 2009; Liu & Tang, 2011; Moloney & Chu, 2016). For these reasons, this study makes a compelling case for examining PSM within developing island nations in the Caribbean, with a Western influence but different contextual and cultural underpinnings. Hence, our research question posed is does the PSM model hold in the Caribbean?

This study provides an opportunity to make a theoretical contribution by extending PSM findings to the Caribbean, while at the same time identifying and discussing unique circumstances that influence and affect the behaviors and attitudes of employees. While the Caribbean may appear similar being a part of the Western Hemisphere, it has several differences related to motivation and turnover attitudes among public employees.

Contextual Background

Caribbean societal antecedents, such as the historical institutionalism of plantation economy, a creature of colonialism, and slavery and indentured servitude (i.e., labor imported from India) were entrenched for a period of approximately 400 years and have contributed to shaping the Caribbean society. From historical and sociological lenses, the theory of plantation economy is used to explain societal dispositions and current cultural practices (Beckford, 1972, 1974a and 1974b; Girvan, 2006; Ryan, 2003). Some examples that can be linked to how employees live out PSM within this context include some of the dark side features of PSM, such as the capacity to endure hardships, or unpleasant situations or events and persist in environments despite feelings of frustrations or being challenged (physiologically, mentally, and emotionally). Finding coping behaviors is a distinctive characteristic born out of historical experiences that translates to adaptive behaviors for Caribbean societies. For instance, from time-to-time, Caribbean societies had to deal with negative effects of hurricanes, other natural disasters, and political changes in administrations and governments. Despite exhibiting resilient behaviors and high motivations, public sector employees’ coping behaviors may also involve withdrawing enthusiasm at work and demonstrating varied levels of absenteeism or even presenteeism.

However, for the most part, Caribbean scholars (Beckford, 1972, 1974a and 1974b; Best & Polanyi Levitt, 2007; Demas, 1975; Girvan, 2006) have attributed these historical and cultural antecedents as legacies that impact people’s behaviors, attitudes, motivations, values, and beliefs that are reflected in much of the experiences and societal dispositions of employees within public employment. We therefore argue that these influences also affect the ways in which PSM is lived out within this context. PSM does not exist in a vacuum; it is influenced by leadership and how people connect to their organization. This may also help to explain cultural dispositions that public employees develop or reflect during their tenure within public bureaucracies. Comparable dispositions are captured in the Jamaican context, wherein the authors examined PSM and ethics in the public sector (Moloney & Chu, 2016).

Given this backdrop, the current study is organized as follows: we begin with providing an overview of PSM and turnover intentions. We follow this by examining other factors that may influence the relationship between PSM and turnover intentions—leadership and P-O fit. The methodology and results are presented, followed by conclusions and implications for theory and practice. Some of these factors align with findings from non-Western fronts that underscore the dark side of PSM, with divergence from mainstream Anglo-American and other Western European developed nations. The study challenges the universality of PSM in the island nations of the Caribbean and helps further advance the literature related to the dark side of PSM.

PSM and Turnover Intentions

Perry and Wise (1990) presented three components of PSM that constituted normative, rational, and affective motives. PSM is defined as a micro level trait that influences attitudes and behaviors of employees to serve the public interest (Perry & Wise, 1990). Given its universal claims, an integrated definition of PSM can be understood as “the beliefs, values, and attitudes that go beyond self-interest and organizational interest, that concern the interest of a larger political entity and that motivate individuals to act accordingly whenever appropriate” (Vandenabeele, 2007, p. 547). Persons with high PSM levels are said to possess an intrinsic attraction to public values and goals that are aligned to public organizations. Past studies found employees with high PSM are more inclined to desire non-monetary than monetary opportunities (Brewer et al., 2000; Bright, 2008). Further, PSM promotes within public servants a desire for retention of public jobs given their predisposition for public employment.

Retaining high performing and motivated employees should be the goal of all managers in the public service. Empirical studies have shown that higher PSM results in lower turnover intentions for public servants (Campbell et al., 2014; Campbell & Im, 2016; Naff & Crum, 1999). Yet, there are inconsistencies in the literature that do not support all these claims. Some studies found negative correlations between PSM and other variables such as tenure (Moynihan & Pandey, 2007a). Other scholars have pointed to contextual factors that can influence the direct relationship between PSM and turnover intention, such as mediating roles of P-O fit (Bright, 2008) and change-oriented organizational citizenship behavior (Campbell & Im, 2016). Therefore, further development of the relationship between PSM and turnover intention remains a significant research goal (Bright, 2008).

Why do people want to leave a public organization? Turnover intention is defined as the last phase in people’s decision process that ultimately leads them to consider leaving their organization (Cho & Lewis, 2012; Jung, 2010; Pitts et al., 2011). However, intention may not always translate into action; research has demonstrated that having a desire to leave may not be acted upon for several reasons, including employees’ individual contribution to organizational goals (task significance), job enrichment experiences, and their ability to adopt efficiency enhancing strategies, including using their voices. These factors can help alleviate unfavorable job characteristics, as well performing extra-role behaviors can lead to high levels of engagement (Bakker & Demerouti, 2007; Mayes & Ganster, 1988). Other reasons for staying may include factors that influence extrinsic motivations such as their pay satisfaction, job security, and opportunities for upward mobility and development, as well as a high degree of organizational commitment (Bakker & Demerouti, 2007; Campbell & Im, 2016; Morrison & Phelps, 1999). Thus, turnover intention is a phenomenon worthy of research; it can be used as an indicator to gauge the health and wellbeing of public organizations (Jung, 2010, 2014). Based on most existing research, we hypothesize that:

H1: Public servants in the Caribbean reporting high levels of PSM are less likely to express turnover intentions.

Leadership and Turnover Intentions

Research has demonstrated that leaders can influence many employee outcomes, including employees’ turnover intentions (Bertelli, 2007; Caillier, 2011, 2016a, 2016b; Gyensare et al., 2017; Hughes et al., 2010). They can also influence employees towards positive or negative outcomes (Bass & Riggio, 2006; Deschamps, 2016; Fu et al., 2010; Jung & Avolio, 2000; Orazi et al., 2013; Park & Rainey, 2008; Tracey & Hinkin, 1998; Vandenabeele, 2014; Vigoda-Gadot & Beeri, 2012; Wright et al., 2011). Turnover intention is reduced when managers understand the needs and motivations of their employees (Pitts et al., 2011; Sun & Wang, 2017). Thus, leaders have the potential to affect the overall well-being of employees; those that feel included are less likely to leave than those that perceive their needs and values are not being addressed by their leaders (McGregor, 1960; Northhouse, 2016; Van Wart & Suino, 2012). Leaders that provide a sense of stability in an organization are instrumental in impacting employees’ decision to stay (Gyensare et al., 2017). As a result, senior leaders that have a sense of vision and are able to promote effective ways of working collaboratively have a greater likelihood to retain their employees.

One of the ways through which leaders can impact retention is by selecting employees whose individual values are compatible with the culture of the organization (P-O fit) (Bright, 2008; Caillier, 2016b; Fu et al., 2010; Hughes et al., 2010; Liu et al., 2015). Accordingly, leaders are effective in their abilities to utilize HRM activities, such as training and development, (Nielsen & Munir, 2009), that ultimately reduce turnover intentions among employees (Caillier, 2011; Hughes et al., 2010). This can be attempted through strategic recruitment and selection of persons with qualities that are attuned to the goals of the organization, along with continued development and support. Given the extant literature on leadership, intent to turnover, and P-O fit, we hypothesize that:

H2: Public servants in the Caribbean who perceive their senior leaders as supportive are less likely to express intentions to leave.

H3: Senior leaders are instrumental in recruitment efforts and will have a positive and significant influence in selecting employees with high P-O fit.

H4: Public servants in the Caribbean who perceive their senior leaders as supportive are less likely to express intentions to leave, mediated by P-O fit.

Person-Organization Fit and Turnover Intentions

In addition to personal motivation in the form of PSM and the behavior and action of leaders, an important factor highlighted in the choice of an individual to remain in their organization is their alignment with the organization in terms of values—Person-organization fit. Person-organization fit has its origins in management and captures the value congruence (i.e., supplementary and/or complementary) employees have with their organizations that affects their attitudes and work behaviors, including turnover intentions (Bright, 2008; Kristof, 1996; Kristof-Brown et al., 2005). Supplementary congruence occurs when employees’ characteristics are similar to their organizations. Complementary congruence occurs when the needs of an organization are offset by the skills an employee brings to the organization (Bright, 2008; Kristof, 1996; Munchinsky & Monahan, 1987). When congruence between employees and their public organizations increases (i.e., a good P-O fit), employees are more likely to be satisfied with their jobs, provide valued resources and are less likely to consider leaving their organizations (Bright, 2008; Jin et al., 2018; Westerman & Cyr, 2004).

Empirical studies indicate how employees’ values interact with the organizational environment to shape turnover intention (Bright, 2008; Moynihan & Pandey, 2007b; Selden & Moynihan, 2000). According to Moynihan and Pandey (2007b), strong social intra-organizational networks help to reduce turnover intention. Employees, who believe they have strong support from colleagues and leaders and are closely connected to them, are less likely to express their turnover intentions in the long run. Similarly, employees who experience a high P-O fit, in light of their value congruence, are less likely to desire exiting their organizations (Bright, 2007, 2008; Moynihan & Pandey, 2007b). A common thread among these empirical studies is that turnover intention may be reduced when public organizations find mechanisms to promote social integration by adapting HRM practices and policies, including leaders’ characteristics, to create better P-O fit (Bright, 2008; Moynihan & Pandey, 2007b). Based on the literature, we hypothesize that:

H5: PSM will have a positive and significant relationship with P-O fit among public servants in the Caribbean.

H6: PSM will influence the turnover intentions among employees through P-O fit; that is, P-O fit serves as a mediator between PSM and turnover intention.

Data and Methodology

The study uses survey data collected in Trinidad and Tobago and Barbados from managers (middle and upper levels) and supervisors/managers (lower levels) in civil service organizations. The data were collected cross nationally in these two jurisdictions between April 2016 and January 2018. There were lulls when collection stopped to facilitate other demands at ministries. Nodal officers (i.e., Deputy Permanent Secretaries and Directors of Human Resources) were identified and assigned within each ministry to coordinate with researchers.

The government ministries included in the survey sample were: education, health, finance, sport and youth affairs, housing, agriculture, labor, planning and development, public administration and communication, works and transport, community development, home affairs, civil service, environment and drainage, social care/social development, community development and science, technology, and innovation. Participants were randomly selected from within the ministries, using their official listings of positions to determine eligibility for participation. Upper managerial positions included deputy permanent secretaries, directors, assistant directors, comptroller of accounts, and chief accountants/accounting executives. Middle to lower managerial or supervisory positions included economists; administrative officers, managers, supervisors, accountants, research officers, senior planning and planning officers, auditors, engineers, assistant managers, and administrative assistants.

Consent letters to conduct the survey were granted to the researchers by the Head of the respective countries’ Public Services. Copies of these were then sent to the Permanent Secretaries of selected ministries, seeking their support to coordinate the employees. Consistent with research ethics protocol of Institutional Review Boards, employees were informed, before participation, about the voluntary nature of the study and assured of complete anonymity as aggregate data were used. A total of 512 responses were received with a response rate of about 60% for Trinidad and Tobago and about 40 % for Barbados¹.

A paper pencil survey was used to collect data in each ministry, coordinated by the nodal officers who liaised with researchers for distribution and collection in every island. A slight variation was adopted in each island for the administration and collection. In Barbados, the nodal officers supervised the administration of the surveys, which were then collected by researchers. For Trinidad and Tobago, the nodal officers were present on site to introduce the researchers who supervised the administration and collection of the surveys. The participants were randomly selected as per their positions, by ministry nodal officers’ organizational knowledge, and invited to participate in the survey designated by dates, times, and venues pre-arranged by each ministry. Participation was affected by their schedules (i.e., accessibility and availability). This process of administration and collection required repeated ministry visits, ongoing coordination with nodal officers, postponements, cancelations and rescheduling of appointments due to numerous work demands by staff. Questions or concerns were clarified to participants on site (i.e., Trinidad and Tobago team) and via nodal officers who liaised with researchers for final collection (i.e., Barbados).

Measurement

Turnover Intentions (Dependent Variable)

The dependent variable of this study was turnover intentions. Turnover intentions were measured using the item: “Are you considering leaving your organization within the next year and if so, why?” The responses: “Yes, to take another job within the Government” and “Yes, to take another job outside the Government” were coded as 1. No was coded as 0, thereby creating a binary variable for turnover intentions. In line with previous studies, “Retiring within 5 years” and “Yes, other” were deleted from the dataset, thus, capturing voluntary turnover (Caillier, 2013; Ertas, 2015; Selden & Moynihan, 2000). Deleting responses that indicated retirement and other resulted in a N = 405. All the variables, along with the items used for each measure, are detailed in Appendix A.

Public Service Motivation (Independent Variable)

The study used four primary measures that capture PSM. This scale was developed by Kim et al. (2012). It is a revised measurement instrument for PSM, tested in twelve countries for validation. This PSM scale provided more rigor, as it aims to accommodate for the diversity existing internationally in areas such as culture, values, and language. However, like all models, these scholars acknowledge the challenge of developing a single universal scale of PSM or making straightforward comparisons of the construct using cross countries analyses. Given these limitations, the revised measurement instrument proved to be stronger and used more reliable psychometric properties.

The four factor measures consisted of attraction to public service (APS); commitment to public values (CPV); compassion (COM); and self-sacrifice (SS) and ranged from 1 (strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly agree). Each of these components consisted of four items listed in Appendix A. The latent variable of PSM was measured using the four main indicator factors created from the 16 items. The Normed Fit Index (NFI) is 0.997, whereas the Comparative Fit Index (CFI) is 0.999. These fit indices suggest that the model is a good fit to data.

Senior Leadership (Independent Variable)

In our study, leadership refers to senior leaders that include deputy permanent secretaries, administrative heads of ministries, and managers within agencies. The study used four primary measures for measuring perceptions of senior leadership, expanded in Table B1 of the Appendix B. The items used ranged from 1 (strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly agree), an example is: “Senior managers have a clear strategic vision for our agency.” The NFI of senior leadership is 0.989, whereas the CFI is 0.995. These Fit indices demonstrate that the model is a good fit to data. Initially, we included 6 items to measure senior leadership; however, only 4 of the items were incorporated since 2 items did not load well onto the latent factor senior leadership.

Person-Organization (P-O) Fit (Mediator)

Person-Organization (P-O) fit was used as the mediating variable. The literature strongly supports P-O fit as having a positive benefit for employees’ attitudes and behaviors, in particular job satisfaction and turnover intentions (Bright, 2008; Kristof, 1996; Kristof-Brown et al., 2005). These statements were adapted from the literature used in Bright’s (2008) study where participants were asked similar questions to indicate their agreement with 4 statements. The same 7-point Likert scale was used for P-O fit –1 (strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly agree). The NFI is 1 and the CFI is also 1. These fit indices demonstrate that the confirmatory factor P-O fit is a good fit to data.

Control Variables

This study used several control variables, which included: gender, supervisory role, years in organization, and education. Supervisory role was a dummy variable; 1 for a person in a supervisory role and 0 otherwise. Years in organization was a continuous variable, measured using the open-ended item: “How many years have you worked in this Organization?” Participants were asked to identify their gender and the responses were coded as male or female. Female was coded as 1 and male as 0. Finally, a dummy variable was used for education. Graduate education was coded as 1 and 0 if otherwise.

Measurement Validation

The analysis was conducted in two stages: first, the measurement model was evaluated using confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) and the second part focused on the testing of the structural equation model. In the first part, confirmatory factor analysis is used to assess the reliability and validity of the measures, and also to show how the various indicator items load onto the latent variables (PSM, Senior Leadership, and P-O-Fit). The hypothesized confirmatory factor analysis provided support for the discriminant nature of the measures adopted and demonstrated the good fit to the data. The chi-square = 107.86, RMSEA = 0.047, NFI = 0.98, and CFI = 0.99. The CFA suggests that all the indicator items converged on their unique latent constructs and also demonstrates that each measure is a distinct latent variable, with only senior leadership and person organization fit that had a covariance of 0.6 (see Appendix Table B1). All the items used in measuring the latent constructs were statistically significant in their respective factor loadings (p < .05) with values ranging from 0.60 to 0.94 (see Appendix B for the confirmatory path diagram). The use of full structural equation modeling helped in assessing the significance of PSM and senior leadership on turnover intention with P-O fit as the mediating variable. Statistical significance is based on 95% confidence interval, using a two-tailed test. The regression weights are standardized weighted least squares estimates.

Results

The average number of years employees worked in their current ministry was about 15 years. A great majority of these public servants were females (74%). Close to 75% of the respondents were in supervisory positions. Table 1 expands on the demographic data of the sample: 20% of the respondents expressed intentions to turnover. The mean values on satisfaction with senior leadership were lower than satisfaction expressed with P-O fit. The values are expanded in Table 2.

Table 1.

Descriptive of Demographic and Other Control Variables.

Variable	Observation	Mean	Std. Dev.	Min	Max
Education
Graduate	405	0.257	0.437	0	1
Gender
Female	405	0.736	0.441	0	1
Other controls
Years in organization	405	23.961	8.787	2	43
Supervisory role	405	0.751	0.433	0	1

Table 2.

Descriptive Analysis of Survey Variables.

Variable	Observation	Mean	Skewness	Kurtosis
Public Service Motivation (PSM)
Attraction to Public Service (F_APS)	405	0^a	−1.468	7.044
Commitment to Public Values (F_CPV)	405	0	−2.549	14.103
Compassion (F_Comp)	405	0	−1.545	8.702
Self-sacrifice (F_SS)	405	0	−0.489	2.851
Person Organization Fit (PO-Fit)
PO1	405	4.035	−0.270	2.210
PO2	405	4.469	−0.474	2.226
PO3	405	4.877	−0.853	3.047
PO4	405	5.756	−1.329	4.645
Senior leadership
SL1	405	3.847	−0.156	2.051
SL2	405	3.835	−0.041	2.048
SL3	405	3.802	−0.118	2.409
SL4	405	3.812	0.007	2.066
Turnover
Turnover intention	405	0.202	1.481	3.193

These are factor scores, which is why the means are 0.

We expected PSM and senior leadership to have had a negative impact on turnover intentions. Additionally, we expected P-O fit to have had a mediating effect on the relationship between PSM and turnover intentions. We also examined the role P-O fit played between senior leadership and turnover intentions.

The structural equation model is represented in Figure 1. The goodness of fit indices indicated a good fit for the model (CFI = 0.98, RMSEA = 0.063, NFI = 0.96). RMSEA value of less than 0.08 is considered a good fit (Hair et al., 1998). Contrary to our Hypothesis 1, PSM was found to have a significant and positive relationship with turnover intentions (β = .23, p < .01). The direct path coefficient from PSM to P-O fit was positive and significant (β = .12, p < .01), thus supporting Hypothesis 5. The nature of the relationship of P-O fit with turnover was negative and significant (β = −.32, p < .01). In other words, the indirect association of PSM and turnover intentions with person-organization fit as the mediator was significant and negative, thus supporting Hypothesis 6. P-O fit was found to partially mediate the relationship between PSM and turnover. Senior leadership had a negative and significant relationship with turnover intention, supporting Hypothesis 2 (β = −.24, p < .05). Senior leadership also had a positive and significant association with P-O fit (β = .67, p < .01), thus supporting Hypothesis 3. Furthermore, senior leadership had an indirect relationship with turnover intentions, with P-O fit as the partial mediator, supporting Hypothesis 4.

Figure 1.

Full structural equation model (N = 405).

Female employees and graduates had positive and significant relationships with turnover intentions. Years in organization and supervisory role had negative and non-significant relationships with turnover intentions. Table 3 presents the results of the full model². This study performed a Harman’s single factor test to examine the possibility of common method bias in our results. Harman’s test showed a 31.12% of total variance, this variance is less than 50%, and this suggests that there is no threat of common method bias in our results.

Table 3.

Regression Weights of Full Model (N = 405).

Model paths	Standardized estimates	T-values
Turnover SL	−0.24	−2.35
Turnover PSM	0.23	3.41
Turnover PO-fit	−0.32	−3.39
PO-fit PSM	0.12	3.60
PO-fit SL	0.67	17.36
SL1 SL	0.96	—
SL2 SL	0.95	68.39
SL3 SL	0.82	32.17
SL4 SL	0.92	56.00
F_APS PSM	0.74	—
F_CPV PSM	0.77	22.71
F_Comp PSM	0.75	18.84
F_SS PSM	0.50	13.45
PO1 PO-fit	0.86	—
PO2 PO-fit	0.79	28.24
PO3 PO-fit	0.94	30.28
PO4 PO-fit	0.63	17.92
Turnover Superv.Role	0.01	0.12
Turnover Years in Org	−0.16	−1.87
Turnover Female	0.31	3.68
Turnover Graduate	0.20	2.74

Note. Normed Fit Index is 0.96. Comparative Fit Index is 0.97. RMSEA is 0.063.

Discussion

The key question we asked in this study is: does the PSM model hold in the Caribbean? There are several noteworthy findings. This study indicates that PSM is significant and positively related with turnover for Trinidad and Tobago and Barbados. These findings conflicted with most previous research that showed higher levels of PSM were associated with lower turnover for public employees (Bright, 2008; Campbell et al., 2014; Campbell & Im, 2016; Naff & Crum, 1999). The findings point to contextual factors that are unique to the experiences of civil servants in these island nations that become relevant to their living out their PSM values and behaviors while recognizing any cultural idiosyncrasies and challenges in a developing nation civil service context.

In respect to the findings for PSM, public managers in Trinidad and Tobago and Barbados appeared to be highly motivated but were at the same time very frustrated or challenged. The prevalence of an increase in turnover intentions among public employees who possess high levels of PSM may be an indication of the dynamics of these contextual factors. Some already alluded to in the study are a civil service culture that reflects elements of a plantation society created over time as a result of historical processes arising out of colonialism, slavery, and indentured servitude. Additionally, employees over time have experienced other colonial systems and experiences that have resulted in cultural and societal dispositions that reflect a lack of enthusiasm to enhance the civil service, as well as the overall efficiency that is negatively affected by burdensome regulations and an inherited meritocracy system (Draper, 2001; Isaacs, 2004).

Furthermore, the management of the organizational climate for both countries reflects individual initiatives or efforts to influence organizational styles of leadership and how employees connect to their civil service environment (Draper, 2001; Isaacs, 2004). The overall impact of public managers performing their leadership roles can influence the behaviors, attitudes, motivations, and other dispositions of their employees in diverse ways. For instance, if the organizational leadership tuned in to cues or nonverbal signs shared by their employees, it can bring about positive outcomes to the PSM lived out experiences by civil servants. Frustrations may be perceived as expressions of ongoing challenges experienced that may continue to be unresolved. As such, these contextual factors may be impacting the quality of work life experiences (e.g., a high quality of work life that is difficult to achieve amidst a culture of mistrust, lack of engagement, resistance to change, and fear of the unknown) that may lead to frustrations and thoughts about leaving. Although public sector employees may consider leaving, many remain until retirement (Moloney & Chu, 2016). Research has shown that turnover intentions can serve as a proxy for turnover, but in most studies, the strength of this relationship was inconclusive and difficult to map using longitudinal studies (Bertelli, 2007). However, this finding can be informative in helping Caribbean civil service examine the collective attitudes of their employees’ intent to turnover. While some may argue that turnover intention is not actual turnover, the desire to leave reflects how employees feel in their jobs, which can extend to other negative behaviors such as reduced enthusiasm, absenteeism, internal transfer requests, or performing only prescribed roles, and conforming to the status quo. These factors can be examined in future studies.

Our findings suggest that PSM alone cannot promise limitless advantages in all public sector settings, especially when analyzed comparatively. PSM is compelling for recruitment and selection of public employees. However, other factors need to be considered to strengthen and retain public employees. An understanding of P-O fit offers practical benefits. It can help to inform public management practices that can influence senior leaders to forge productive and engaging relationships between themselves and managers at all levels (Jin et al., 2018). It can enable strong support from senior leaders and employees, enabling closer bonds that can reduce the likelihood of turnover intentions in the long run. Within the Caribbean context, P-O-Fit can offer the compelling advantage to reinforce value congruence (i.e., supplementary and or complementary) that may enhance a better fit of employees with favorable work climates that are conducive to them, while gaining their valued resources and commitment in order to lower their turnover intentions and increase retention while sustaining high PSM levels.

Our finding corroborated with previous studies that show P-O fit is a significant factor impacting the attitudes and behaviors of public employees’ turnover intentions (Bright, 2008). Employees’ choices to remain in public organizations are rooted in their alignment with their organizations in terms of values. Future research can focus on strengthening “the value-fit” relationship to examine organizational outcomes such as performance, morale, and retention rates. A value fit perspective for public employment is to ensure employees experience engagement, improved job satisfaction, and reduced turnover. Contextual factors highlighted in the study can be likened to intervening processes that some studies concede can affect the direct relationship of PSM mediated with the value-congruence hypothesis underscored by Perry and Wise’s theory (Bright, 2008).

In the Caribbean civil service, employees are often tasked with heavy workloads and may not have adequate resources to perform their jobs. Often, they are expected to do more using less and this can lead to frustrations, ultimately to increased stress and burnout overtime as employees may persist to overexert themselves by trying to do their best given their constraints. Hence, there should be practical HRM strategies put in place to ensure adequate balance between job demands and provision of job resources. Failure to monitor this can lead to employee stress, burnout, disengagement, and a desire to quit. Within the Caribbean context, future areas of research can include the role of PSM in other aspects of the HRM process such as employees’ workload and job resources, job design and redesign, performance management culture, pay satisfaction, advancement opportunities, and flexible work schedules (Piatak et al., 2020).

We also find that senior leadership is associated with a significant decrease in turnover intentions. Progressive initiatives from senior leadership have the ability to lower the intent of employees’ turnover. Female employees across all the models were more likely to express intent to turnover. While an in-depth understanding of this relationship was beyond the scope of this study, this is an interesting result and could be further explored using qualitative data such as interviews or focus groups. Perhaps, women might experience challenges in their roles and work experiences that contribute to their frustrations.

Conclusion

This study makes several contributions to the literature. First, it reinforces in these island nations that PSM serves as a compelling factor for individuals with predispositions to work in the public sector. Second, that PSM can be lived out differently in developing nations where contextual factors may covertly or overtly influence employees’ behaviors and attitudes that contrast with developed nations. Third, PSM is a complex phenomenon that can reflect wide-ranging behaviors and characteristics in individuals. Persons with high PSM can reflect cognitive dissonance that shows their frustrations or challenges in being able to live out their PSM. A relevant application of PSM in the Caribbean is that challenging contextual factors cannot counter PSM’s potency within individuals. Public managers with high PSM can develop extensive coping behaviors that can exert high tolerance; they “satisfice,” keep within the status quo, think about leaving but do not, and become resilient and persevere in a bureaucratic organizational climate (Moloney & Chu, 2016; Scott & Pandey, 2005). Fourth, given that P-O-Fit serves as a mediator between PSM and turnover, senior leaders should build strategies that motivate employees by engaging them to bridge gaps in their internal civil service cultures that will contribute to lower turnover intentions (Jin et al., 2018). A major practical implication from the study includes the compelling role of public sector leaders in their work environments to ensure good P-O fit, lower turnover intentions, and sustain high PSM levels. Since senior leadership has an impact on lowering turnover, future studies can examine leadership styles and its influence on PSM and turnover.

The study is not without its limitations—one is the use of a single period cross sectional data. Another limitation is self-reporting behaviors that are likely to contribute to some level of bias. Future researchers can conduct in-depth interviews to understand the divergence of behaviors among employees in the region. Generalization of this study may not extend beyond the Caribbean and developing nations. To counter some of the challenges of cross-sectional design, this study employed structural equation modeling to better measure latent variables such as PSM, senior leadership, and P-O fit. Future studies can use a case study approach to examine in-depth differences that might exist by the type of department/organization in which employees work. For example, PSM might vary with finance or works and transportation departments compared to social care/social development or community development and science departments. Tracking PSM longitudinally will also help observe changes in employee motivations over time, although this may be challenging.

Footnotes

Appendix A

Appendix B

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

ORCID iD

Meghna Sabharwal

Notes

Author Biographies

Charlene M. L. Roach is head of department of political science and lectures in public management at The University of the West Indies, St. Augustine Campus, Trinidad and Tobago, where she earned her undergraduate degree. She obtained her M.P.A. and PhD in public administration from Arizona State University, USA. Her research interests are focused on public management, public human resource management, comparative administration and e-government.

Meghna Sabharwal is a professor and program head in the public and nonprofit management program at the University of Texas at Dallas. Her research interests are focused on public human resources management, specifically workforce diversity, job performance, job satisfaction, and high-skilled migration. She is widely published in public administration journals, and is the winner of three best paper awards. She also has two book publications: Public Personnel Administration (6th Ed.) and Public Administration in South Asia: India, Bangladesh, and Pakistan.

Romeo Abraham is PhD graduate in Public Affairs from the University of Texas at Dallas. His research interests are local government fiscal resiliency, emergency management, human resource management, and urban planning.

Dr. Wayne Charles-Soverall is a Senior Lecturer in Public Sector Management. His current research focuses on public sector management practices, public sector strategic leadership and change management, public service performance, corporate and public governance. He has co-authored four books Doing Projects (2000), Managing and Evaluating Projects (2003), Gaining Productivity (2007), and Empowering Management (2018).

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