Abstract
Several studies have previously suggested that alkali metal ions such as potassium and sodium play a critical role in the smoldering and igni tion of cotton upholstery fabrics. We have conducted an extensive review of the relevant literature to identify potential sources of these ions and to delineate possible mechanisms by which they affect the smoldering and ignition of cotton upholstery fabrics. The hazard associated with the cigarette ignition of cotton upholstery fabrics is addressed in terms of statistics on fire fatalities. Potential sources of alkali metal ions on the cotton fiber have been identified as being (1) from soil and agricultural chemicals used during the growth of the cotton plant and (2) from alkali agents used in textile wet processes such as dyeing and finishing.
A general framework and pathway of cellulose degradation, smoldering com bustion and ignition to flaming combustion is presented. Potential effects of alkali ions on each of these processes have been analyzed. The most probable role of these ions is suggested to be a catalytic effect on the oxidation of car bonaceous char (smoldering combustion).
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
1991. NFPA: Fire Facts, No. 91-4, National Fire Protection Association, August.
2.
2. Karter, M. J., Jr. 1991. NFPA J., (Sept./Oct.):36.
3.
Miller, A.L.
1991 . Ibid ., (Jan./Feb.):86 .
4.
Yeh, K.
1985 . J. Fire Tech. , 21 :105 .
5.
Damant, G.H.
and
M.A. Young.
1977 . J. Cons. Prod. Flamm. , 4 :60 .
6.
Williams, S.S.
and
G.H. Damant.
1981 . Ibid.,
8 :89 .
7.
Krasny, J.F.
,
P.J. Allen
,
A. Maldonado
and
N. Juarez.
1981 . National Bureau of Standards Internal Report, NBSIR 81-2362 .
8.
Damant, G.H.
Private communication .
9.
Damant, G.H.
and
S.S. Williams.
1982 . J. Cons. Prod. Flamm. , 9 :31 .
10.
Damant, G.H.
,
S.S. Williams
and
J.A. McCormack.
1983 . J of Fire Sciences,
1 :309 .
11.
Krasny, J.F.
1984 . "Cigarette Ignition of Soft Furnishings- A Literature Review with Commentary ," NBSIR 87-3509, Technical Study Group , Cigarette Safety Act 1984 , Vol. 2, June.
12.
Damant, G.H.
1978 . "A Bibliography of Published Information on Furniture Flammability ," J. Cons. Prod. Flamm. ; Part 1: 5:245; Part 2: 7:127; Part 3:9 :235 .
13.
Babrauskas, V.
and
J.F. Krasny.
1985 . "Fire Behavior of Upholstered Furniture ," NBS Monograph 173.
14.
Travers, E.B.
and
N.F. Olsen.
1982 . Text. Res. J. , 52 :598 .
15.
Gill, J.T.
and
A. Shaw.
1985 . Text. Chemist & Colorist (Nov.):217 -225 .
16.
Needles, H.L.
and
W.-C. Lu .
1980 . J. Cons. Prod. Flamm ., 7 :250 .
17.
Segal, L.
,
J.D. Timpa
and
G.L. Drake
, Jr. 1974 . Text. Res. J.,
44 :839 .
18.
Hilado, C.J.
and
D.P. Brauer.
1979 . J. Fire & Flamm.,
10 :26 .
19.
Ihrig, A.M.
,
A.L. Rhyne
,
V. Norman and
A.W. Spears.
1986 . J. Fire Sciences,
4 :237 .
20.
Gann, R.G.
et al. 1987 . Report of Technical Study Group , Cigarette Safety Act of 1984 , Vol. 3.
21.
McCarter, R.J.
1981 . Fire and Materials , 5 :69 .
22.
McCarter, R.J.
1977 . J. Cons. Prod. Flamm. , 4 :346 .
23.
Shafizadeh, F.
and
A.G.W. Bradbury.
1979 . J. Thermal Insul. , 2 :141 .
24.
Thomas, C.A.
and
C.A. Hochwalt.
1928 . Ind. Eng. Chem. , 20 :575 .
25.
Fargher, R.G.
and
J.C. Withers.
1922 . J. Text. Inst., Transactions , 1 .
26.
Fargher, R.G.
and
M.E. Probert.
1926 . Ibid ., 17 :T146 .
27.
Fargher, R.G.
et al. 1927 . Ibid ., 18 :T29 .
28.
Walker, A.C.
and
M.H. Quell.
1933 . Ibid ., 25 :T123 .
29.
Walker, A.C.
and
M.H. Quell.
1933 . Ibid ., 25 :T131 .
30.
Heinzelman, D.C.
and
R.T. O'Connor.
1950 . Text. Res. J. , 20 :805 .
31.
McCall, E.R.
and
J.F. Jurgens.
1951 . Ibid.,
21 :19 .
32.
Merrill, G.R.
,
A.P. Macormac
and
H.R. Mauersberger.
1949 . American Cotton Handbook , 2 nd Edition. New York, NY : Textile Book Publishers, Inc. , p. 88 .
33.
Lester, J.H.
1904 . Text . Mercury , 31 (822 ):440 .
34.
Lester, J.H.
1904 . Ibid ., 31 (823 ):449 .
35.
Domelsmith, L.N.
and
R.J. Berni.
1984 . Text. Res. J. , 54 :210 .
36.
McHargue, J.S.
1926 . J. of Am. Soc. of Agronomy , 18 :1076 .
37.
Knecht, E.
and
J. Allan.
1911 . J. of Soc. of Dyers , 27 :142 .
38.
Knecht, E.
and
W. Hall.
1918 . Ibid.,
34 :223 .
39.
McBryde, J.B.
1896 . USDA Bulletin #33 , 81 .
40.
Hendrix, J.C.
1914 . J. of Ind. & Eng. Chem ., 6 (9 ):1711 .
41.
Letcher, T.M.
and
S. Lutseke.
1990 . Text. Res. J. , 60 :305 .
42.
Matthews, J.M.
1916 . The Textile Fibers , 3 rd Edition. New York, NY : John Wiley & Sons , p. 266 .
43.
Brushwood, D.E.
and
H.H. Perkins
, Jr. 1992 . Proceedings, 1992 Beltwide Cotton Conference , p. 1454 .
44.
Davies
and
Dreyfus.
1889 . Sizing and Mildew in Cotton Goods . Manchester , p. 15 .
45.
Dabney, C.W.
1896 . "The Cotton Plant ," USDA Bulletin #33.
46.
Monie.
1904 . The Cotton Fiber and Mixing of Cotton . Manchester , p. 57 .
47.
Mitchell
and
Prideaux.
1910 . Fibers Used in Textile and Allied Industries . London , UK: p. 96 .
48.
Barnes, J.H.
1916 . J. Soc. Chem. Ind. , 35 :1191 .
49.
Wanamakers.
1923 . Am. Chem. Soc., Cell. Div .
50.
Matthews, J.M.
1924 . The Textile Fibers , 4 th Edition. New York, NY : John Wiley & Sons , p. 475 .
51.
Nickerson, R.F.
,
T.D. Fontaine
and
C.B. Leape.
1941 . Text. Res. J. , 11 :154 .
52.
Matthews, J.M.
and
H. Mauersberger.
1947 . The Textile Fibers , 5 th Edition. New York, NY : John Wiley & Sons , p. 269 .
53.
Guthrie, J.D.
1955 . "The Chemistry of Lint Cotton," in The Chemistry and Chemical Technology of Cotton ,
K. Ward, Jr.
, ed., New York, NY : Interscience Publishers , pp. 1 -14 .
54.
Perkins, H.H.
, Jr. 1981 . Text. Res. J. , 51 :123 .
55.
Ross, S.E.
,
A.H. Gibbs
,
J.H. Trexler
and
W.H. Riser.
1980 . Text. Res. J. , 50 :128 .
56.
Gibbs, A.H.
,
F.P. McKenna
,
W.H. Riser
,
W.B. Rogers
, Jr. and
S.E. Ross.
1981 . Text. Res. J , 51 :135 .
57.
Sasser, P.E.
1980 . Text. Res. J , 50 :61 .
58.
Winch, A.R.
1980 . Text. Res. J. , 50 :64 .
59.
Johnson, R.H.
, Jr.,
S.P. Hersh
,
S.K. Batra
and
T. Myers.
1980 . Text. Res. J , 50 :73 .
60.
Chewning, C.H.
1980 . Text. Res. J. , 50 :79 .
61.
Fornes, R.E.
and
R.D. Gilbert.
1980 . Text. Res. J , 50 :84 .
62.
Peters, R.H.
1967 . Chapter 4 in Textile Chemistry . London , UK: Elsevier Publishing Co. , 2:88 .
63.Ibid ., Chapter 9, p. 164 .
64.Ibid ., Chapter 18, p. 328 .
65.
Aspland, J.R.
1991 . "A Series on Dyeing," Chapter 2 in Text . Chemist & Colorist , 23 :41 .
66.
Soc. of Dyers & Colourists and AATCC.
1971 . Colour Index , Vol. 2, 3 rd Edition.
67.
Aspland, J.R.
1991 . "A Series on Dyeing," Chapter 1 in Text . Chemist & Colorist , 23 :14 .
68.
Shafizadeh, F.
1968 . Adv. Carbohydr. Chem. , 23 :419 .
69.
Hendrix, J.E.
,
J.E. Bostic
, Jr.,
E.S. Olson
and
R.H. Barker.
1970 . J. Appl. Polym. Sci. , 14 :1701 .
70.
Yeh, K.
and
R.H. Barker.
1971 . Text. Res. J. , 41 :932 .
71.
Madorsky, S.L.
,
V.E. Hart and
S. Straus.
1956 . J. Res. Natl. Bur. of Stds. , 56 :343 .
72.1958 . Ibid ., 60 :343 .
73.
Drews, M.J.
,
K. Yeh
and
R.H. Barker.
1973 . Textilveredlung , 8 :180 .
74.
Yeh, K.
,
M.J. Drews
and
R.H. Barker.
1980 . J. Flame Retardt. Chem. , 7 :99 .
75.
Kosik, M.
,
V. Luakova
,
V. Reiser
and
A. Blazej.
1976 . Fire and Materials , 1 :19 .
76.
Shafizadeh, F.
and
Y.L. Fu .
1973 . Carbohydr. Res. , 29 :113 .
77.
Schuyten, H.A.
,
J.W. Weaver
and
J.D. Reid.
1954 . Adv. Chem. Ser. , 9 :7 .
78.
Tang, W.K.
and
W.E. Neil.
1964 . J. Polym. Sci. , C6 :65 .
79.
Holmes, F.H.
and
C.J.G. Shaw.
1961 .
J. Appl.
Chem., London , UK: 11 :210 .
80.
Golova, O.P.
,
Y.V. Epshtein
and
L.I. Durynina.
1961 . Vysokomolekul. Soedin ., 3 :536 ; 1962 . Chem. Abstracts, 56:4999.
81.
Baldry, P.J.
,
D.F. Cullis
and
M.M. Hirschler.
1988 . Fire & Materials,
12 :25 .
82.
Hardin, I.R.
and
Y.-L. Hsieh.
1985 . Text. Chemists & Colorist , 17 :41 /21 .
83.
Sekiguchi, Y.
and
F. Shafizadeh.
1984 . J. Appl. Polym. Sci. , 29 :1267 .
84.
Shafizadeh, F.
and
A.G.W. Bradbury.
1979 . J. Appl. Polym. Sci. , 23 :1431 .
85.
McKee, D.W.
1980 . Chemistry and Physics of Carbon ,
P. L. Walker, Jr.
and
P. A. Throuver
, eds., New York, NY : Marcel Dekker , 17:1 .
86.
McKee, D.W.
1982 . Carbon,
20 :59 .
87.
McKee, D.W.
and
D. Chatterji.
1975 . Carbon,
13 :381 .
88.
Amariglio, H.
and
X. Duval.
1966 . Carbon,
4 :323 .
89.
Wigmans, T.
,
J.V. Doorn
and
J.A. Moulijn.
1983 . Fuel,
62 :190 .
90.
Moulijn, J.A.
,
M.B. Cerfontain
and
F. Kapteijn.
1984 . Fuel,
63 :1043 .
91.
Yuh, S.J.
and
E.E. Wolf.
1983 . Fuel,
62 :252 .
92.
Kannan, M.P.
and
G.N. Richards.
1990 . Fuel,
69 :999 .
93.
Low, M.J.D.
and
C. Morterra.
1985 . Carbon,
23 :311 .
94.
Brinsmead, K.H.
and
R.W. Kear.
1956 . Fuel,
35 :84 .
95.
Saber, J.M.
,
J.L. Falconer
and
L.F. Brown.
1986 . Fuel,
65 :1356 .
96.
Wigmans, T.
,
P. Tromp
and
J.A. Moulijn.
1984 . Carbon,
22 :319 .
97.
Taylor, H.S.
and
H.A. Neville.
1921 . J. Am. Chem. Soc. , 43 :2005 .
98.
Fox, D.A.
and
A.H. White.
1931 . Ind. Eng. Chem. , 23 :259 .
99.
Long, F.J.
and
K.W. Sykes.
1952 . Proc. Roy. Soc ., Series A., London , UK: A215 :100 .
100.
Franke, F.H.
and
M. Meraikib.
1970 . Carbon,
8 :423 .
101.
McKee, D.W.
and
D. Chatterji.
1978 . Carbon,
16 :53 .
102.
Veraa, M.J.
and
A.T. Bell.
1978 . Fuel , 57 :194 .
103.
Wen, W.-Y.
1980 . Catal. Rev. Sci. Eng. , 22 :1 .
104.
Wigmans, T.
,
J.C. Boebel
and
J.A. Moulijn.
1983 . Carbon,
21 :295 .
105.
Mins, C.A.
and
J.K. Pabst.
1980 . Am. Chem. Soc., Div. Fuel Chem. , 25 :258 .
106.1980 . Ibid. , 25 :263 .
107.
Kapteijn, F.
and
J.A. Moulijn.
1983 . Fuel , 62 :221 .
108.
Spiro, C.L.
,
D.W. McKee
,
P.J. Kosky
and
E.J. Lamby.
1983 . Fuel, 62:181 .
109.
Wood, B.J.
,
R.H. Fleming
and
H. Wise.
1983 . Proceedings, Intl. Conf. Coal Sci , Pittsburgh, PA , p. 415.
110.
Yokoyama, S.-Y.
,
K. Miyahara
,
K. Tanaka
,
J. Tashiro
and
I. Takakuwa.
1980 . Nippon Kagaku Kaishi , 6 :974 .
111.
Marsh, H.
and
A.D. Foord.
1973 . Carbon,
11 :421 .
112.
Bradbury, A. G. W
and
F. Shafizadeh.
1980 . Carbon,
18 :109 .
113.
Bradbury, A.G.W.
and
F. Shafizadeh.
1980 . Comb. & Flame,
37 :85 .
114.
Donaldson, D.J.
,
H. H. St. Mard
and
R.J. Harper
, Jr. 1979 . Text. Res. J. , 49 :185 .
115.
Cheek, L.
,
A. Wilcock
and
N. Olsen.
1985 . Ibid.,
55 :271 .
116.
Madacsi, J.P.
,
N.B. Knoepller
and
J.P. Neumeyer.
1977 . J. Fire Retardt. Chem. , 4 :73 .
117.
Hilado, C.J.
and
R.M. Murphy.
1978 . Fire and Materials , 2 :173 .
118.
Wilcock, A.
, A.
Smith, L.
Cheek and
N. Olsen.
1986 . J Fire Sciences,
4 :73 .
119.
Ohlemiller, T.J.
1990 . Combust. & Flame,
81 :354 .
120.
Ohlemiller, T.J.
1980 . Natl. Bur. Stds. Internal Report, NBSIR 81-2530 .
121.
Rogers, F.
and
Ohlemiller, T.J.
1980 . Combust. Sci. Technol. , 24 :129 .
122.1980 . Ibid ., 24:139 .
123.
Ohlemiller, T.J.
1981 . Ibid. , 26 :89 .
124.
Ohlemiller, T.J.
1983 . Combust. & Flame,
54 :131 .
125.
Palmer, K.
1957 . Ibid.,
1 :129 .