The Effects of Intergenerational Ministry on the Transmission of Christian Faith in Korean Immigrant Churches in the United States

Abstract

Given the challenges of young people leaving the Christian faith, this research sought to explore the effects of intergenerational ministry on the transmission of the Christian faith to the next generation of Korean immigrant churches in the United States. A total of 35 participants (primary sample: 17 young adults; subsamples: nine parents and nine pastors) participated in semi-structured in-depth interviews. Results from this study generated nine themes revealing factors and effects of intergenerational ministry.

Keywords

faith transmission intergenerational ministry the next generation Korean immigrant churches family ministry generational discipleship

Introduction

Many church leaders today are concerned about young people leaving the church or entirely abandoning the Christian faith. A new 2019 study by the Barna Research Group reported that 64% of young adults (18- to 29-year-olds) with a Christian background left their churches after the age of 15, up from 59% in a 2011 study. Moreover, in the report of the 2011–2012 National Korean American Church Survey (Oh, 2008), 82.3% of second-generation Korean Americans left their immigrant churches after graduating from high school, and 45.7% of them left the Christian faith. Helen Lee (1996) called the phenomenon of second-generation Asian Americans leaving their ethnic churches the “Silent Exodus.” In the process of immigration adaptation (i.e., acculturation), the linguistic and cultural barriers caused by the generational gaps lead to conflict between the “first generations” (those who were born in Korea and came to the United States as adults) and “second generations” (those who were born in the United States, with at least one parent born in Korea). In order to resolve intergenerational (IG) conflicts and increase ministry efficiency, many Korean immigrant churches have provided English ministry (EM) for second generations, but this has resulted in further widening the gap between the two generations, making it difficult to pass on the faith (Allen & Ross, 2012, pp. 249–250).

To revitalize faith transmission between older and younger generations, an increasing number of Christian educators have argued through research that IG experiences contribute to long-term faith formation (Allen & Ross, 2012; Harkness, 2000; Hellerman, 2017; Kinnaman & Hawkins, 2011; Kinnaman & Matlock, 2019; McIntosh, 2002; Roberto, 2012; White, 1988; Wilhoit, 2008). However, due to the cultural characteristics of immigrant churches, in which generations are divided not only by age but also by language, it is challenging to do ministry to enhance IG experiences. For that reason, the implementation and research of intergenerational ministry (IGM) is relatively scarce. Thus, the purpose of the study was to explore the effects of IGM on the transmission of the Christian faith to the next generation of Korean immigrant churches in the United States and to provide some avenues of improvement through the examination of successful IGM cases.

Literature Review

Considering the Silent Exodus phenomenon of Korean immigrant churches, it is essential to first understand the theoretical framework pertaining to the transmission of the faith. Second, it is also necessary to discuss the generational issues and ministry status of Korean immigrant families and churches.

Intergenerational Faith Transmission

To understand how faith is formed and IG faith transmission is possible, this study reviewed relevant theories related to faith development, social learning, sociocultural learning, and situated learning, as well as the insights from advocates of IGM. First, relevant theories pertaining to faith development from Fowler (1981, 1991), Westerhoff (2000), and Nelson (1967, 1989) stress the crucial role of parents and the IG faith community in shaping and maturing young people's faith. Second, Bandura's (1977) social learning theory explains how people learn through observation, imitation, and modeling in a social context; Vygotsky's (1978) sociocultural learning theory claims that people learn effectively when interacting with those who are more advanced in their learning process; and Lave and Wenger’s (1991) situated learning theory proposes a learning process of engagement in a community of practice. These theories build frameworks for understanding how people learn effectively through IG interactions. Lastly, insights from IGM advocates, including White (1988), Harkness (1998a, 1998b, 1998c, 2000), Allen and Ross (2012), and Jones (2009, 2017), provide benefits of IGM and examples of its practices. According to Jones (2017), the healthy family ministry should include two biblically grounded dynamics: “family-as-church” and “church-as-family” (para. 3). These insights indicate how crucial IGM is when it comes to harmonizing divided generations, especially when considering the future of the immigrant church.

Current empirical research explores factors that contribute to IG faith transmission. Parental religiosity had a positive impact on the transmission and development of adolescent faith (Goodman & Dyer, 2019; Martin et al., 2003). IG faith transmission occurred better under parental consistency between religious beliefs and practices (Bader & Desmond, 2006; Goodman & Dyer, 2019). The second primary factor that contributed to children's later religious beliefs was family religious activities during childhood and adolescence. Christian socialization in the family during adolescence had the strongest positive influence on their conviction in their adult years and later life (Barry et al., 2013; Birkelbach & Meulemann, 2013; Dollahite et al., 2019; Goodman & Dyer, 2019; Martin et al., 2003).

Based on these empirical studies, the most effective functions of the church in IG faith transmission can be summarized in three ways. First, churches should intentionally pursue an IG philosophy of ministry (Linderman, 2016; May et al., 2011; Ross, 2012; Snailum, 2012). Second, churches should provide more opportunities for IG interaction (Embree, 2017; Lanker, 2012; Lau, 2017; Linderman, 2016; May et al., 2011; Powell et al., 2017; Ross, 2012; Snailum, 2012). Finally, churches should overcome challenges in implementing IGM with biblical perspectives (Lau, 2017; Ross, 2012; Snailum, 2012).

Korean Immigrant Churches in the United States

According to statistics released in 2018 by Christian Today, there were a total of 4,454 Korean churches in the United States which increased by 221 from 4,233 in 2013 (Jang, 2018). A 2012 Pew study shows that 61% of the Korean Americans consider themselves Protestant, and 66% of them are evangelicals. Most Korean immigrant churches are divided into two ministries: the Korean-speaking ministry (KM) and the English-speaking ministry (EM), where first and second generations worship in different settings using different languages (Oh, 2008). In addition to the first and second generations, Korean Americans are also defined as “1.5 generations” and “third generations.” The 1.5 generations are people who immigrated to the United States before or during their early teens, and the third generations are those who were born in the United States and raised by second-generation Korean American parents.

Considering the issue of the bicultural context, Berry's (1992) bidimensional model of acculturation helps make sense of the process of cultural transformation in immigrant families. Strauss and Howe's (1991) generational theory explains how each generation is shaped through shared beliefs, attitudes, values, and behaviors. Given each generation's characteristics, several Christian scholars suggest practical applications for fruitful church ministries that bring these generations together (Esqueda, 2018; Gambone, 2015; McIntosh, 2002; Sbanotto & Blomberg, 2016).

Most immigrant families in the first and second generations experienced IG tensions and disconnections created by the process of immigration (ChenFeng et al., 2015; Dennis et al., 2010; Lui, 2019; Park, 2005). IG conflicts within families negatively affect young people's psychological functioning and family well-being, reducing family cohesion and dynamics (Dennis et al., 2010; Lee & Koeske, 2010; Lui, 2019). However, IG conflicts can be alleviated by a variety of mediating factors such as parental warmth and attachment, social support, and ethnic identity and language (Cho, 2015; Kim, 2013; Lee & Koeske, 2010; Moon, 2008; Park, 2005; Wu & Chao, 2005). In addition, Christian spirituality and the faith community can be significant resource for supporting personal, marital, and familial relationships in immigrant homes (ChenFeng et al., 2015; Lu et al., 2012).

Regarding the challenges of Korean immigrant churches in the United States, Byun (2015) argued that the Silent Exodus is still considered a significant problem in this context. Furthermore, the tension in the relationship between pastors in KM (generally first-generation Koreans) and EM (generally second-generation Korean Americans) was another key issue in Korean immigrant churches that stemmed from cultural differences (Byun, 2015; Kim, 2010; Min & Kim, 2005).

Research Questions

For the purpose of this study, one primary research question was addressed: What are the effects of IGM practices on transmitting the Christian faith to the next generation in Korean immigrant churches in the United States? To answer this primary question, the following subsidiary questions were explored:

What types of IGM practices are being implemented in Korean immigrant churches in the United States?

What factors contribute to or hinder effective IGM?

What are the effects of their IGM practices on IG faith transmission?

What has been the perceived influence of IGM practices in the church on IG relationships between younger and older generations?

How and to what extent has participation in IGM practices during adolescence affected the younger generation's faith maturity?

How and to what extent have these IGM practices equipped older generations to become disciple-makers for the next generation?

Research Methodology

This study employed a qualitative research methodology to explore participants’ perceptions of the impact of IGM on faith transmission and a grounded theory approach for collecting and analyzing data. A combination of criterion and snowball sampling strategies was used to recruit participants. The target population for this study consisted of young Korean American Christians (ages 18–29) who grew up attending Korean immigrant churches, actively involved in IGM practices with their parents during their adolescence, and are still voluntarily participating in worship and serving the church. To strengthen the credibility of this qualitative research, I added the subsample of their parents and church leaders. During the recruitment process, I first contacted a senior pastor or an education pastor of each church who expressed a philosophy of IGM, and was currently conducting a minimum of eight or more intentional IG activities per year. Among the pastors I contacted, the pastors of nine churches who expressed their willingness to participate recommended young adults and their parents who met the criteria. In some cases, nominated participants encouraged others who fit the criteria, resulting in a final list of 35 participants (primary sample: 17 young adults; subsamples: nine parents and nine pastors). They were representing a variety of Protestant denominations from nine Korean immigrant churches in California, Texas, New Jersey, and Washington.

Data were collected via personal one-on-one interviews using a semi-structured in-depth approach that offers topics and questions to the interviewee, but is carefully designed to elicit the interviewee's ideas and opinions on the topic of interest (Flick, 2014). The interview was guided by 10 core questions and 19 probes to identify seven thematic variables (Appendix I). Interview questions were tested in a pilot study to ensure the appropriateness of the research design (Gall et al., 2007). Due to the COVID-19 pandemic, each interview was conducted through the online video platform Zoom and lasted approximately 50–90 minutes (19 interviews were conducted in English and 16 in Korean). Participant demographic information is portrayed in Appendix II. Data analysis for the interviews was conducted using the NVivo 12 qualitative analysis software to utilize a grounded theory approach following the open-axial-selective coding process. To ensure the validity and reliability of this qualitative study, this study used data triangulation, peer debriefing, clarifying researcher bias, member checking, thick description, taking field notes, continuously checking transcripts, and comparing concepts. The researcher is a first-generation Korean immigrant who has been involved in the Korean American church for about 20 years and is aware of the urgency of IGM, which is experiencing a crisis of passing on the faith due to the serious division between generations. The purpose of my study was to explore the perspectives and experiences of Korean American pastors and congregants on IGM's effectiveness on faith transmission.

Results

The findings of this empirical research explored answers to three subsidiary research questions. The first subsidiary question was to identify the types of IGM implemented in Korean American churches. All nine participant churches have been holding IG worship services; six of these churches held IG worship services once a month, two churches every week, and one church only seasonally. The types of IGM practices implemented by these nine churches include IG prayer times, 40-day camps, IG prayer partners, IG devotional times, annual English Camps in Korea, weekday IG praise worship services, teachers’ assistant systems, IG early morning worship services, college student connections, spiritual mentoring discipleship, links between children and seniors, family mission trips, family Sundays, parent connect ministries, IG Bible studies, IG small groups, babysitting events, providing the same sermon topics for all generations, 40-day community campaigns, and annual feasts.

Answers to the second and third subsidiary questions generated nine themes that were divided into three categories: factors contributing to effective IGM, factors hindering effective IGM, and effects of IGM practices on IG faith transmission (Appendix III).

Factors Contributing to Effective IGM

The Church's Ongoing Vision Sharing and Providing IG Interactions

For more effective IGM, all three participant groups emphasized the important role of the church in providing more intentional IG interactions to build relationships. Interestingly, the word most frequently expressed by the young adult participants was “awkward.” To resolve this discomfort, a total of 12 out of 17 young adult participants argued that churches should provide more personal IG interaction opportunities, rather than simply expecting them to attend IG worship services and events that often lacked social connection. Grace shared her unforgettable memory of the family retreat she had with the rest of her church members and how bonds with other generations were formed. She said:

The retreat with the whole church has always been very memorable in my head, how we go to those retreats every summer and all praise together, pray together within families. We even play games together… because through those kinds of events, we build a bond with not just our own age group, but we have so many mentors that we look up to that are in their 30 s. This experience not only made the awkwardness disappear when worshiping with older members, but also made small talk and an excessively comfortable relationship when meeting at church.

Haley also expressed her appreciation for the many IGMs her church implemented, stressing the importance of the church's IGM to fostering IG relationships:

Our church does a lot of intergenerational ministries right now. That's something I’m very grateful for. We’re doing pretty well between the age groups and worshiping with our families. Intergenerational ministry is important, though it may be awkward and crazy at first… it's very helpful because you do feel a part of the Christian family, not just [with our young adults but with the whole church]. In order to feel that I think it's important for churches to implement those programs and activities so that even between real families, they can grow a relationship as well.

In addition to providing more intentional IG interactions, seven out of nine parent participants highlighted the church's continuous education about the church as a family and the body of Christ as emphasized by Jesus and Paul. Parent H shared her feelings about the pastor's unceasing teaching that the church is a family, saying, “It was not an easy thing to do but I am very thankful that now we are able to hold hands together as a family and pray for one another.” To promote IG interactions, all nine pastor participants emphasized the importance of the senior pastor's ministry philosophy focusing on generational unity for faith transmission. They also added that the church should constantly strive to build a biblical church that promotes IG unity and has a sense of urgency for the future of the Korean immigrant church. Additionally, all three participant groups mentioned the church's efforts to supply resources for IG worship services, including translation systems for worship attendees who speak different languages, Bible studies for Sunday sermons, intermediary roles for the 1.5 generation, and the same sermon topics for all generations.

Christ-Like Examples of Parents and Older Generations

The majority of young adult participants mentioned that they became more willing to be involved in IGM when they saw their parents and older generations setting an example of faith in action. Brandon mentioned:

When it comes to parents, there was never really a time where they taught me to do stuff, but there's a lot of times where they taught us through action. Because they served in the church too. So, watching them serve, it really influenced me to be involved in more serving opportunities together, whether with people from EM or KM.

Similarly, Hope shared her experiences of worshiping with adults and seeing them passionately seeking and worshiping God, helping her to mature and emulate them. Grace described the efforts of church adults to overcome the language barrier between generations as an attempt to communicate with children and creating a more open and accepting environment, saying:

Our church adults try really hard to get on the youth kids level… We had groups that were made up of all age groups; and youth kids had to talk to 50-year-olds and talk about what they’re going through and things like that. But I mean, definitely, language could be a barrier, but they overcome that with effort. They just try. Overall, the environment's very open to that.

Parent and pastor participants also recognized the significant roles of parents and older generations in their children's faith education, creating a community where children feel loved and valued, practicing patience for the fruit of IG reconciliation, and helping children to maintain or learn Korean. Pastor participants especially emphasized the necessity of supporting the next generation to maintain their identity as Koreans.

Personal Engagement in Embracing Different Generations

The theme of personal engagement to embrace other generations emerged only in the young adult data. Eleven young adults argued that they should make efforts to approach the older generations first to overcome initial awkwardness rather than merely being avoidant. Haley highlighted the importance of learning to “be comfortable in the uncomfortable” with a willingness to share and an open mind. Irene also noted that it is necessary to overcome the awkwardness and language barrier between the two generations by asking questions and listening carefully with patience. Gideon claimed that as the younger generations put up with awkward periods and tried to form relationships with the older generations, they would benefit from it over time.

Ten young adults stressed that efforts to embrace and respect different generations are essential for more effective IGM, citing the biblical obligation to form one body in Christ as a factor that allowed them to embrace generations. Moreover, seven young adults argued that both generations should strive to acquire or develop two languages, Korean and English, for effective IGM in Korean American churches. Beyond that, several participants emphasized (a) being guided by the Holy Spirit to make all of this possible and (b) realizing the need for IGM during pandemic situations.

Factors Hindering Effective IGM

Inefficient Church Systems for Integrating Generations

All three participant groups noted the church's insufficient systems for integrating generations as one of the factors that interfere with effective IGM. These systems included the division of the Korean ministry (KM) and the English ministry (EM), as well as keeping members busy with other church ministries. Nine young adults pointed out the lack of opportunities to form IG relationships due to the division of KM and EM. About half of parent and pastor participants agreed that the separation of KM and EM was the most serious factor in preventing Korean immigrant churches from becoming one and transmitting their faith. Additionally, about a quarter of young adult participants expressed dissatisfaction about their parents being too busy with church ministry, which led to a lack of time together. In addition, parent participants mentioned their own insufficient understanding of the value of IGM. Pastor participants additionally pointed out the church's lack of education on the importance of IG integration for faith transmission and the lack of evaluation of IGM practices.

Language and Cultural Barriers Between Generations

Another obstacle to effective IGM was the barrier of language and culture between generations. Regarding the issue of language barriers, a surprising result was revealed. Even though most young adult participants agreed that there were language barriers between them and first-generation adults, more than half noted that this barrier was surmountable and not a major obstacle to participation in IGM. For example, Amy and Daisy highlighted the importance of a missionary mindset, saying that if we engage in IGM with the mindset of going to a third world where English and Korean are not spoken, the separation caused by language barriers between generations would be reduced. Gideon also maintained that although language barriers exist, the reason why they are not a major problem is that bilingual people (usually the 1.5 generations) serve as a bridge between the two generations due to the nature of his church system.

However, when it comes to cultural barriers, most young adult participants pointed out that authoritarian and unbiblical attitudes of parents and older generations seriously hindered the formation of IG relationships. Over 70% of young adult participants claimed that the reason they were reluctant to communicate with parents and other adults in the church was not due to a language difference but rather the authoritarian attitudes of the older adults. Felix and Daniella argued that the cause of the generational conflict was the lack of effort to understand each other's differences in background and beliefs. The parent and pastor groups also noted the seriousness of language and cultural barriers between generations, although they did not comment on this as much as the young adult group. As such, language and cultural barriers appeared in all participant groups. However, the results of the data indicate that younger generations felt these barriers were more real and restrictive of their relationships with older generations, especially concerning cultural conflicts.

Lack of Personal Commitment

As was the case in the contributing factor section, this last hindering factor was also generated only in the young adult group. Six young adults cited their overemphasis on personal preferences (e.g., singing hymns and listening to sermons only in English and mingling only with peers) that they experienced in the past or are in the process of experiencing that may have prevented them from engaging in more IG interactions. Four young adults mentioned forced participation by their parents as one of the negative factors for effective IGM. Fisher commented:

For the small groups, I would say the outcome wasn’t very positive, because a lot of it was forced; the families were brought together and the kids just have to follow their parents because dinner was served at the small group meeting and not at home. A lot of the kids that go through small groups, I’m not sure if they would identify as Christian or really practice their faith once they went to college and after.

Daisy, Ethan, and Isaac also shared their discomfort because they were sometimes forced by their parents or other church adults to participate in IG worship and church social gatherings.

Effects of IGM Practices on IG Faith Transmission

IGM Helps Connect and Unite Generations

In the evaluation of the impact of IGM on IG relationships, most young adult participants claimed that their IGM practices helped them connect to and unite with other generations. Specifically, a total of 11 out of 17 young adult participants responded that their IGM practices helped reduce generational gaps and conflicts. Gideon and Grace, whose church has a ministry that integrates entire generations, expressed how their participation in those ministries helped them reduce the generational gap they had before. In Gideon's expression:

I see myself closer to everyone. That's a huge benefit, since we’re all treated the same. We listen to the same sermon, since we are together, and there's less of a separation. I freely talk to the adults or the hyungs [In Korean, older brothers] and nunas [older sisters] that are a lot older than me. So, for the intergenerational relationship, it removes the barrier of that generational gap. We’re all together, and we have the freedom to talk with whoever we want to… So, regarding cultural barriers, that's also nothing because I think we all adjust for each other, and that culture difference decreases as well.

Grace said:

For me it's naturally easier to talk to the older generation, even though they’re not from the same culture because I have experience talking to our elders in church. I have more of a heart towards serving the elderly, both inside and outside of church, and being a part of that change.

Moreover, ten young adult participants evaluated their IGM experiences as promoting genuine relationships with other generations. Gavin noted that engaging with older generations of ministry helped them develop their relationships of personal conversation with those adults and made them feel connected not only to the adult generation but also to the church as a whole. Gideon also shared the benefits of being able to freely share faith-related conversations with adults and especially the senior pastor of the church through Bible study times with other generations. More importantly, several participants voiced that they did not and will not leave the church because of this IG connection.

Six young adults noted that their IGM experiences enhanced family bonding. Grace commented on how IGM practices brought about the development of family relationships:

It definitely helped our family at least share similar core values, because we went to the same church. Because our church focuses so much on the family aspect, I think it really helped. Our families stay more connected with each other, and it gives more opportunity on Sundays since we sit together during the sermons and the pastor has us get with our families to discuss what we felt or what we took away from the sermon that week. So, naturally, people tend to share with their families more, and I think that's very important.

Haley also mentioned that one of the advantages of worship with family was that her family became spiritually united by being in the same space. Similarly, Hope shared stories that her relationship with her mother was restored through worship service, which opened up opportunities for deep conversations with her parents. Thus, she called the IG worship service “reconciliation and healing.”

Like the young adult group, most parent participants also acknowledged that IGM helped improve IG relationships. A total of eight out of nine parent participants claimed that generational gaps and conflicts were reduced through IGM. Parent G2 commented on this:

My relationship with other students and children began to improve as a result of better communication and when we see each other, we give each other high fives and we connect better now.

Six parent participants noted that IGM strengthened family bonding. Parent F explained the importance of family missions, saying that her family could understand each other and communicate well through the annual mission trip with her children. Four parents additionally mentioned that IGM practices helped families get along well at home during the COVID-19 pandemic. Three of them reported that the experiences of IG worship services and family mission trips helped their relationships at home during the pandemic.

Several pastor participants agreed with this claim and noted that with the COVID-19 outbreak, they have clearly seen the difference between those who were prepared for faith education at home and those who were not. Three pastors said witnessing this made them more aware of the role of the church in helping parents play a significant role in discipling their children at home. One striking finding of this study involved a church that practiced IGM more actively and had increased membership during the COVID-19 pandemic. It was explained by a pastor that their growth was because of the good example families in the church set for their neighbors, encouraging the neighboring families to consider attending their church.

IGM Helps Young People Have a Biblical View of the Church and Live a Life Accordingly

Regarding the impact of IGM on IG relationships, young adult participants maintained that their IGM experiences helped them have a biblical perspective of the church and live a life accordingly. Specifically, 14 out of 17 young adult participants claimed that their IGM experiences led them to love the church more and be committed to missions, evangelism, and church ministries. Grace showed how she and her church members are working hard to care for each other:

We try as a church to help each individual family grow closer together within their own faith and whenever the college kids go to college and come back home, they have a good relationship with their church and with their family… Even right before COVID hit, we, the young 20's group, organized a babysitting event called ‘Date night for the 30's’ and had a night where all the 30's unnis [older sisters] and oppas [older brothers] could drop off their kids for one night so they could go on dates with their spouses. With things like that, all our group was so willing to participate and volunteer in it because we all have relationships with their kids and know what they’re going through. We were so eager to help and all of those intentions and hearts, I feel, is what makes me really love our church and our community.

Haley also expressed how she came to realize the importance of the spiritual family by introducing a story of the person who was a mother figure to her in the church community. She then mentioned, “I feel that I had this spiritual family and feel a part of the Christian family, not just our own young adult group is one body, but really the whole church is the whole body.”

Over 70% of young adult participants reported that they considered the church as their spiritual family in one body of Christ. Two of them remarkably expressed their IGM experiences as life in heaven. According to Grace:

I would see the whole congregation in the praise team, because I’m part of the praise team, and it consists of members of all ages, teens to 40's, and remember feeling like ‘this is what heaven probably feels like.’ It's all about the various generations from toddlers to grandmas and grandpas who are all there, clapping together.

Irene similarly cited:

It feels like what heaven might feel like. At the end of the day when we go to heaven, there are people of all races of all stages of life, and we are not in our current bodies but in a new body. But to recognize that in a place of worship, it doesn’t matter if I’m old or young, or if I’m 80 or 60; we’re all just there worshiping God… It doesn’t matter if you’re first-generation Korean, second-generation Korean, or if you can’t even understand the language. At the end of the day, faith in Christ is the one that centers us all.

Moreover, 11 young adults stated that participating in IGM helped them gain broader perspectives and knowledge of the Christian life. Ten young adults declared that they got closer to God through IGM, and some of them encountered God for the first time through IG worship or IG prayer time. Lastly, eight young adults expressed their passion and sense of responsibility for the generation after them.

Both young adult and parent participants acknowledged that IGM helped grow the next generation's faith, but there was a slight difference in the indicators for evaluating that growth. Whereas most of the young adult participants measured their faith growth by addressing their engagement in loving activities, parent participants mainly reported their children's faith growth by witnessing them voluntarily seeking God more and serving the church with other generations. Six parents also mentioned that their children came to see the church as their spiritual family. Parent H shared a story of how she was moved by her daughter's view of the church as a family:

I told my daughters that since they are older and more comfortable with English, they can move on to an English-speaking church. But she said that she was able to understand Korean enough and that she didn’t want to leave here, which she considered as her home church. She said, “Why would I leave my home?” I was really touched to hear her say that.

Like the two other participant groups, pastor participants believed that as young people participate more in IGM, they love the church and devote themselves to serving it more, take more responsibility for the next generation, and become more passionate about evangelism and missions.

IGM Helps Parents Set an Example for Their Children and Helps Families Grow Together Spiritually

In terms of the impact of IGM on the preparation of parents discipling their children, 11 out of 17 young adults responded that IGM practices enabled their parents to become more active in their faith training at home. Gavin shared how his parents changed significantly after participating in IGMs for several years:

A drastic change: before, it felt like [my parents] just wanted me to go to church, but they weren’t really interested in my personal growth. For example, they would make sure I go, but after that, they were hands-off about it. After having this intergenerational ministry style for a couple years, it seems like they are more hands-on and active about making sure we’re on the right track and that we’re more interested in what we’re learning… We also have more Bible study together in the family. Also, my parents attend the Bible study in the morning that we go to, so it was a lot easier because it wasn’t just our family, like our introduction to sharing our thoughts.

Most young adults noted that IGM created a common topic of conversation for the family and helped their interests reach a level that encompassed not only personal faith growth but also the spiritual growth of both the family and the church as a whole.

Ten young adults admitted that their parents had become their role models through IGM practices. They maintained that through seeing their parents truly worshiping God and serving in the church, they were naturally involved in more opportunities to serve the church together with their parents. In the case of Haley, she described one of the changes in her mother's faith after the restoration of her relationship with her mother through a family worship service at church. This became a faith activity that she and her siblings adopted together:

Probably the most change in my mom, if anything, was this. Just little things like having to wake up from morning prayer or hearing her praise by herself. That's very nice to see just seeing her praise on our own or we used to do something where sometimes you would upload five thanks to my family group chat. I like to see my mom's five thanks. That's a new thing where we started uploading five thanks for the day.

In spite of a small number of negative comments, 13 out of 17 young adults revealed that their parents became examples of faith to them through IGM and became more active in faith training at home. Therefore, they believed that IGM helped their parents set an example for them and helped families grow together spiritually.

In addition to the themes found in the young adult group, parent participants stated that IGM helped them realize their significant roles in discipling their children. Parent C commented on her awareness of parental responsibility for raising children, especially emphasizing that parents must first be trained in the faith and be prepared to teach their children. Parent G2 also shared what he realized while referring to the senior pastor's teachings:

The pastor's vision has reshaped and affected my beliefs for spiritual growth and how I should educate my children's spirituality. Because of these realizations I believe the key to intergenerational church development is the parents. It is the role of the parents to educate their children and it is the role of the church to educate/equip the parents.

Not only did this realization help them develop a genuine relationship with their children, but they confessed that their concern and love extended beyond their own children to the responsibility of the children in the church. Pastor participants also argued that through IGM, parents grew in their own faith, realized their significant role as disciple-makers, and became role models for their children.

Discussion

The findings of this study showed that the role of the church in continuing efforts to integrate generations for the transmission of faith is crucial. Through interviews with the participants, it was revealed that we should particularly pay attention to the following three things: (a) providing more IG interactions, (b) encouraging active participation of families, and (c) continuing education about the biblical church. Corresponding to these results, previous studies highlighted that the church should intentionally pursue an IG philosophy of ministry and provide more opportunities for IG interactions to integrate generations more effectively (Allen & Ross, 2012; Burr et al., 2015; Embree, 2017; Harkness, 1998a, 1998b, 1998c, 2000; Jones, 2009, 2017; Lau, 2017; Linderman, 2016; May et al., 2011; Powell et al., 2017; Ross, 2012; Snailum, 2012; Westmoreland, 2019; White, 1988). In facilitating IG interactions, several participants mentioned the necessity of encouraging the active participation of children so that they can take ownership of the worship service rather than merely watching the adult worship like a performance. These arguments are consistent with Westerhoff's (2000) assertion that children develop Christian faith as they belong to the IG faith community through worshipping together, learning, and witnessing the faith of others. Considering the next generation of long-lasting faith, the results of this study and various pieces of literature stress the importance of early faith education that can be further strengthened through IGM practices.

This study also showed the importance of the church's ongoing teaching on the biblical church, emphasizing spiritual family and the body of Christ as described by Jesus and Paul in the New Testament. Many participants, especially young adults, claimed that through the pastor's constant teaching, they came to realize the value of generational unity by embracing the differences of others, overcoming their initial awkwardness and seeing them as their spiritual family. The experience of these participants lends credence to the arguments of IGM advocates, who claim that IGM arose from the core of biblical ecclesiology that embraces all ages. Understanding God's intended design for the church helps church leaders create and implement better IGM programs. In particular, considering the nature of Korean immigrant churches, this teaching is crucial in weakening the division between KM and EM as a hindering factor of IGM. Therefore, to achieve generational integration through IGM and to pursue the transmission of faith to the next generation, it is essential that the church continuously teaches about the family of God and the body of Christ.

Along with the role of the church, many participants of this study emphasized the importance of the contributions of parents and older generations as another factor that made the IGM approach more dynamic. These contributions include (a) setting examples in faith and behavior, (b) being more approachable by adopting non-authoritarian attitudes, and (c) helping second generations learn the Korean language and maintain their identity as Koreans. These findings support many previous studies that parental religiosity had a positive impact on the development of their children's faith and influenced their children's lives by exemplifying behavior-belief congruence (Bader & Desmond, 2006; Goodman & Dyer, 2019; Leonard et al., 2013; Marks, 2004; Martin et al., 2003). The crucial role of the parental example is best illustrated in the Shema teachings in Deuteronomy 6:4–9, where Moses provides ways for parents to live out their duty to their children. To fulfill their mission, parents must become an example by putting God's words in their hearts and obeying these words themselves (Brown, 2016; Craigie, 1976; Driver, 1902).

Another noteworthy finding of this study was that the factor hindering IG relationships in Korean immigrant churches was not language differences, but the authoritarian attitude of the adult generation. Most young adult participants mentioned that they experienced cultural conflicts with adult generations caused by the hierarchical system that required absolute obedience to authority. On the other hand, when these adults abandoned this attitude and treated younger generations in a more approachable and non-authoritarian way, the younger generation was able to participate willingly in IGM. Moreover, young adult participants cited that their improved Korean language proficiency helped them to engage more comfortably in IG interactions. The benefits of bilingualism for overcoming generational barriers as immigrants have been highlighted in many empirical studies. Park (2005) and Cho (2015) encouraged the bilingualism of children in immigrant families, claiming that the maintenance of ethnic culture functions, especially their heritage's language, was a preventive factor for parent-child conflict in Korean immigrant families. In addition, Lee et al. (2006) claimed that youths who expressed great confidence in their identities as Christians and Koreans expressed strong faith influenced by traditional Korean values. Many participants of this study pointed out that compared to the past, the younger generation of Koreans became more proud of their Korean identity and more interested in IG interaction opportunities at home and at church. The Korean Wave, a cultural phenomenon that has become a global popularity of South Korean culture, has contributed to making them feel proud to be Koreans.

Implications for Ministry Practice

Based on the findings of this study, some implications and suggestions for the ministry practice of the three participant groups were found that can strengthen and support the transmission of the faith in Korean immigrant churches through IGM.

Implications for Church Leaders

It is important for senior pastors and educational ministry leaders to first build a foundation of why intentional IGM is needed. This foundation should include biblical imperatives and contextual urgency of Korean immigrant churches. The next step is how to make the groundwork a reality. Based on the arguments revealed in this study and previous literature, church leaders should patiently and continuously share the vision for IGM with their congregants and teach that the biblical church upholds these values. Then, as most participants emphasized, the church should provide more opportunities for IG integration to form IG relationships. For a more fruitful IGM, the church also needs to conduct regular evaluations to check whether this ministry is proceeding as originally intended and is in balance with the other missions of the church, such as the Great Commandment and the Great Commission.

Implications for Parents and Older Generations

As many pastor participants argued, the partnership of the church with parents is key to making IGM more dynamic. For parents to be the first in charge of their children's faith training, the church should provide parenting education and continue to teach a biblical view of the church and child-rearing through sermon messages. The church can also help parents consistently and diligently teach God's laws (Deut. 6:7) by supplying materials for parents and children to share in their homes, or by providing guidelines for worshiping together at home. Furthermore, church leaders need to set an example in dealing with the younger generation in a non-authoritarian manner so that they feel loved and willing to communicate with the older generations.

Implications for Younger Generations

For the younger generation to actively participate in IGM despite its initial awkwardness, the church should educate and help them to find the value of IGM first, instead of forcing it upon them. In addition, the importance of improving the Korean language is also emphasized by parent and pastor participants to better communicate with the older generation. In this regard, the role of the church and parents is to instill in the younger generation God's special purpose for Korean immigrants living in the United States. The church should support them in their efforts by teaching biblical examples of bilingual people and the benefits of being bilingual to be used more widely for the expansion of God's Kingdom.

Limitations of the Study

This study has several limitations which need to be identified to strengthen future research endeavors on this topic. First, the specific criteria of sample selection created a very narrow pool of possible participants, which makes it difficult to represent the phenomenon of a specific region, and also to represent the others across the United States. Second, sampling bias may have occurred because the pastors may have selected participants close to them and their most active young adult and parent participants. Third, the online platform Zoom may have prevented participants unfamiliar with its methods from fully expressing their experiences and emotions. Lastly, the emotional bias of both the researcher and participants may have been involved.

Recommendations for Future Research

Put together from the findings and limitations of this study, some recommendations for future research can be made. First, since the young adult participants of this study were mostly made up of people who grew up in Christian families and were raised by two parents, it is necessary to research how the young people matured in faith without the full support from one or two parents. Future research needs to include single-parent homes as well as non-Christian parents. Second, it is recommended that the researcher do observations along with interviews to collect data on where and when events and activities are occurring. Third, longitudinal studies investigating the same group of individuals over a long period of time are needed to explore the impacts of IGM practices on the younger generation's spiritual growth over time. Finally, future research needs to supplement regional distribution so that churches can participate in a balanced way in representing the United States.

Conclusion

This study sought to explore the effects of IGM on the transmission of faith in Korean immigrant churches in the United States in relation to IG relationships, faith development of younger generations, and parents’ preparation for discipling their children. The impact of IGM may differ depending on both the size and the degree of effort of the church. Despite reporting a small number of negative or marginal impacts, the overall data results demonstrated that IGM practices had a significant positive effect on the transmission of the faith. These results were evidenced by what participants witnessed and described as their improved IG relationships, the matured faith of younger generations, and the increased preparedness and willingness of older generations to disciple the next generation.

Footnotes

ORCID iD

Hyun Ae Lee

Appendix I. Interview Questions for Young Adults

I. Open Questions: Background Information

Can you briefly introduce yourself to me?

Can you tell me about your Christian faith background?

Did you grow up in a Christian home?

If not, how did you become a Christian?

II. Transition Questions: Background of Faith Activities

I am seeking to understand the background of your faith activities that you experienced as a child. These activities may include any daily, weekly, biweekly, or monthly family faith-related activities such as Bible study, family devotion, spiritual hymns, and/or prayers.

If you experienced any faith activities at home when you were growing up, can you tell me about those activities?

How often and in what format were those activities conducted?

Who participated in those activities?

What was your role and your parents’ role(s) in those activities?

If you have never experienced faith activities growing up at home, why do you think that is?

III. Key Questions

Now we will discuss the intergenerational ministry practices you have experienced in the church as a youth. The definition of intergenerational ministry in this study includes activities run by a faith community that involve all ages. Intergenerational ministry also includes the church's support of intergenerational faith transmission both in the home and the church through engaging in mutual serving, sharing, and learning. For instance, I have personally experienced such activities as monthly family worship, Christmas special worship, community service, and mission trips at church.

Practices of IGM

Can you describe the kind of intergenerational ministry that you have participated in at your church?

How often and in what format were those meetings or activities held?

How long did each meeting or activity last?

Who participated in the meeting or activity?

Effects of IGM: IG Relationships

How have intergenerational ministry practices in the church influenced intergenerational relationships between older and younger generations?

How have those intergenerational ministry practices affected your relationship with your parents? For example, has this led to more open conversations about Christian faith at home; understanding each other's cultural differences? Alternatively, has it increased conflict?

How have those intergenerational ministry practices affected your relationships with older adults in your faith community and those outside of it?

If the intergenerational ministry practices had little or no such effects, why do you think that was the case for you?

Effects of IGM: Children's Faith Development

How have intergenerational ministry practices impacted your faith development?

How have those intergenerational ministry practices affected you in your intimacy with God?

How have those intergenerational ministry practices affected your love and service to other members of your church and neighbors?

How have your experiences in the faith community influenced your perception of the church as a family and one body in Christ?

Are there any other examples that best explain how intergenerational ministry practices have affected your faith?

If the intergenerational ministry practices had little or no such effects, why do you think that was the case for you?

Effects of IGM: Equipping Parents to Become Disciple Makers

How do you perceive the influence of intergenerational ministry practices in the church on your parents regarding faith education at home?

As a result of your church's intergenerational ministry practices, have your parents started doing something differently than before at home? If so, can you give me an example? For instance, did they start any family faith activities or natural conversations about Christian faith?

As a result of your church's intergenerational ministry practices, have your parents started doing something differently than before in the faith community? For instance, did they take part in caring for or educating other younger generations at church?

IV. Ending Questions: Further suggestions

What do you think has been the most beneficial or challenging to you in this ministry experience?

Can you give me any suggestions for churches seeking to strengthen intergenerational unity and faith development through intergenerational ministry efforts?

Is there anything you would like to add to our conversation?

Appendix II. Demographic Information

Appendix III. Emerging Themes

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