Voices of Hispanic College Students

Abstract

As Hispanic students continue to be an underrepresented cultural group in higher education, researchers are called to uncover the challenging and complex experience of this diverse group of students. Using the constant comparative method, these researchers conducted a content analysis of the qualitative research on the experiences of Hispanic college students within the Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences (1979-2011). Of the 1,060 findings generated, only six qualitative research articles met the inclusion criteria for this content analysis. Eight themes emerged: past barriers, negative college experiences, self-efficacy, positive feelings, succeeding, additional support, cultural awakening, and hope. Discussion of two separate realities for Hispanic college students is included.

Keywords

qualitative research college students content analysis college experience

Revisions to the Higher Education Act (HEA) of 1965 included statements advocating for minority student representation in areas of higher education in which underrepresentation was common (HEA, 2008). Longitudinal research conducted in the United States has identified Hispanic students as a cultural group with one of the lowest percentage of college graduates (Banchero, 2010; Hagedorn, Chi, Cepeda, & McLain, 2007; McCarron & Inkelas, 2006). Despite the plight of advocacy groups, such as the Alliance for Equity in Higher Education, 12% of undergraduate and graduate populations are of Hispanic descent (U.S. Census Bureau, U.S. Census Bureau News, Profile America Facts for Feature, 2011).

Several variables have contributed to the low numbers of Hispanic college students. Researchers have found that Hispanic high school students who have experienced discrimination while in high school are less likely to apply to college (Taggart & Crisp, 2011). According to Nora and Rendon (1996), Hispanic students often maintain these academic environmental factors due to low socioeconomic status and the potential minimal exposure to role models possessing a college degree. Factors such as little contact with students and faculty within higher education institutions may reinforce a lack of commitment among many Hispanic students to educational goals (Cavazos et al., 2010; Nora & Rendon, 1996). Lack of social support and poor satisfaction with the university environment has been identified as additional constructs leading to academic nonpersistence among Hispanic undergraduates (Gloria, Castellanos, Lopez, & Rosales, 2005).

Studies have revealed many Hispanic college students are also first-generation college students (Garcia, 2010; Hall, 2008). Dynamics surrounding the experience of first-generation college students may contribute to the low enrollment numbers of Hispanic students in college (Hall, 2008). Results from research on first-generation college students have suggested these students are more than twice as likely to drop out of college when compared with non-first-generation students (Choy, 2001). In addition, many Hispanic college students experience psychosocial issues such as low self-esteem, decreased self-efficacy, and little encouragement from parents when pursuing a college degree (Hahs-Vaughn, 2004).

Despite the barriers facing Hispanic college students, Arbona and Nora (2007) have identified positive academic and environmental factors contributing to college degree attainment among this population. Positive precollege experiences, academic achievement, constructive faculty interactions, and the use of campus resources were found to reinforce academic persistence within higher education (Arbona & Nora, 2007; Contreras, 2009). Ample social and familial support, perceived mentorship, and variables contributing to high self-efficacy have been shown to increase the persistence and determination among Hispanic undergraduate students (Cejda & Rhodes, 2004; Gloria et al., 2005; Jimenez-Silva, Jimenez Hernandez, Luevanos, Jimenez, & Jimenez, 2009; Zalaquett & Lopez, 2006). Furthermore, personal protective factors, such as a strong work ethic, determination, resiliency, and optimism have been shown to foster continued tenacity among Hispanic college students and support success in college (Cavazos et al., 2010; Contreras, 2009).

Given the current unstable economic conditions in the United States, a college degree has turned into a necessary commodity for individuals nationwide, particularly those of Hispanic descent. This necessity calls for a focus on successful mentoring of Hispanic students in higher education. Although empirical research supports the examination of constructs influencing college degree attainment, quantitative studies do not thoroughly describe the meaning or depth of experience of Hispanic college students. As such, the in-depth understanding of salient issues, realities, and struggles encountered by Hispanic college students is warranted to fully understand the complex lives of this diverse group, and are of particular importance to counselors and student affairs professionals. The dissemination of these findings through a national journal is imperative to provide insight for helping Hispanic students to thrive in U.S. academic and vocational institutions.

As environmental, psychosocial, and personal factors appear to cross with issues of normal life span development among Hispanic college students, these authors sought to examine the qualitative research available in Hispanic focused media. The breadth and depth of Hispanic college student experiences can be fully appreciated when expression of these accounts emerge from the students’ own voices. Statistical analyses may fail to capture the true essence of these students’ experience within higher education and so the examination of the qualitative research becomes paramount.

Content Analysis Method

Understanding the experiences of Hispanic college students requires narrowing the focus to this specific population group with the added stratification of considering only students in higher education. These criteria led researchers to examine the Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences (HJBS). This journal was specifically chosen because of its aim and scope of multidisciplinary articles and generous inclusion of various research methodologies within manuscripts (HJBS, 2011). Furthermore, recommendations for the HJBS encouraged examination of “life span issues, delivery of mental health service issues, and prevention and mental health concerns” (Padilla & Lindholm, 1984, p. 17). Padilla and Lindholm encouraged researchers to concentrate on normal developmental issues and stressors arising during adolescent years. In addition, the HJBS, published by SAGE, Inc., has online journal accessibility to pdfs and abstracts from December 1979 until the present, which was important for prolonged engagement on the topic. Due to the accessible and comprehensive nature of these articles, these researchers utilized HJBS for a qualitative content analysis on the experience of Hispanic college students.

Data Collection

The constant comparative method is a process in which data analysis develops patterns and themes from which theory can emerge, often called grounded theory. This was the method of choice used to analyze the qualitative research on the experience of Hispanic college students within the HJBS. Within the document analysis, it is essential for researchers to capture data in a way in which records and preserves context (Patton, 2002). Furthermore, the constant comparative method allows for themes to emerge, rather than imposing themselves prior to data collection (Dye, Schatz, Rosenberg, & Coleman, 2000).

An advanced search was conducted using the online search engine embedded within the HJBS. Initially, the advanced search was conducted using the terms qualitative research + college student which yielded a total of 33 findings. The authors assumed the number of qualitative research articles on the experience of Hispanic college students might be higher if more precise terminology was used in the search engine. Therefore, 16 separate theoretical traditions, as identified by Patton (2002) were used to conduct additional advanced searches. Two searches were completed per tradition (e.g., “grounded theory” and “grounded theory + college students”) for a total of 32 searches. These measures were taken to ensure all qualitative articles on the experience of Hispanic college students would be captured and saturation would be achieved as cited in Table 1.

Table 1.

Content Analysis Sampling Procedure.

Qualitative theoretical traditions (Patton, 2002)	Number of findings generated^a		Combined findings meeting identified criteria for content analysis
1. Ethnography	24	10	0
2. Autoethnography	1	1	0
3. Reality testing: Positivist and realist approaches	0 0	0 0	0 0
4. Constructivism	2	2	0
5. Phenomenology	15	7	1
6. Heuristic inquiry	8	3	0
7. Ethnomethodology	0	0	0
8. Symbolic interaction	17	10	0
9. Semiotics	2	0	0
10. Hermeneutics	0	0	0
11. Narrative analysis	50	31	0
12. Ecological psychology	65	48	0
13. Systems theory	251	147	0
14. Chaos theory	4	3	0
15. Grounded theory	33	23	3
16. Orientational: Feminist inquiry, critical theory, queer theory	5 177 3	5 110 3	0 2 0
Total (N)	657	403	6
Combined total (N)	1,060		6

The first number under “Number of Findings Generated” includes search of the theoretical condition and the second number includes search of the theoretical condition + college students.

Using the HJBS online search engine, a total of 1,060 findings were generated within the 32 searches. Researchers then cross checked for duplication of articles. In adherence with the constant comparative method predetermined criteria were utilized to enhance objectivity during the data collection process. Inclusion for this content analysis was considered when an article met the following criteria: (1) Hispanic college students were study participants; (2) a clear identification of qualitative methodology; and (3) focused on addressing the experiences of Hispanic college students. Each article was examined by the research team, cross referenced and visually inspected to ensure it met the aforementioned criteria for inclusion to enhance the credibility of the content analysis. A thorough review of the 1,060 findings generated, quantitative studies, mixed-methods research, single case design, and studies which did not focus on the specific experience of Hispanic college students. These articles were discounted. Astonishingly, after all measures were taken to eliminate ineligible articles, the content analysis on the qualitative research on the experiences of Hispanic college students included only six articles from 1979 to 2011 as presented in Table 2.

Table 2.

Eligible Content Analysis Articles.

Authors and year published	Title	n	Participant description
Cabrera and Padilla (2004)	Entering and Succeeding in the “Culture of College”: The Story of Two Mexican Heritage Students	2	Male and female Stanford University Academically resilient
Jones, Young, and Rodriguez (1999)	Identity and Career Choice among Mexican-American and Euro-American Preservice Bilingual Teachers	12	6 Mexican Americans, 6 Euro-Americans.
Zamarripa, Lane, Lerma, and Holin (2011)	Self-Knowledge and Identity in a Mexican-American Counseling Course: A qualitative exploration	6	3 males and 3 females in a Mexican American counseling and mental health course
Gonzalez, Barr, and Wanat (2010)	Attrition From Premedical Studies Among Latinas: Case Studies	7	Latinas in their freshman year who identified wanting to have a career in medicine
Campa (2010)	Critical Resilience, Schooling Processes, and the Academic Success of Mexican Americans in a Community College	5	Ages 19-41; 3 women and 2 men, 3 married two single. Various occupations & majors, one born in Mexico
Faulkner (2003)	Good Girl or Flirt Girl: Latinas’ Definitions of Sex and Sexual Relationships	31	Latinas of Puerto Rican, Dominican, and Cuban descent

Note. Not all manuscripts were used in the content analysis due to lack of information relating to college persistence and attainment.

When examining the qualitative data on the Hispanic college student experience, each author committed to a position of neutrality while utilizing the constant comparative method. The authors did not utilize preexisting variables or categories from existing theories or studies. However, the analysts, two who identified as Mexican American and one as a Native American, acknowledge their potential biases and subjective stances that could distort an examination of the documents throughout this content analysis. As guided by the suggestions of Patton (2002), the authors cautiously reflected on and reported any potential sources of error.

Analysis Procedures

Initial analysis was completed using an inductive approach to condense the data into its most basic form. After independent case analysis, the process of open coding was used to sort the data into conceptually similar categories. Open coding is the method of “. . . breaking down, examining, comparing, conceptualizing, and categorizing data” (Strauss & Corbin, 1990, p. 61). This process was conducted until the research team was satisfied they had retrieved all the data that could be categorized from each article. Categories emerged from the raw data and standards were initially assigned for categorical consistency. After the initial categories were created, researchers applied axial coding processes to the combined data set and made comparisons to address conceptual similarities and differences. These critical connections examined the present data and also addressed areas in which data and categories appeared to be missing.

By completing side-by-side comparisons, the data set was confirmed as being representative of the articles. The data were examined and placed into categories and assessed for credibility. This process allowed for further rigor of the combined data set by including criteria formally agreed on by the authors. Data with low level of consistency were either recategorized or removed from the data set. This was necessary to ensure the trustworthiness of the final outcome including topics relevant to the study on Hispanic students in college.

Results

Emergent Themes

Findings indicate an overall discovery that the experiences of Hispanic college students were unified in several ways. The overriding theme of this content analysis was the voice of Hispanic college students. The qualitative research articles included in the data were based on the lived experiences of Hispanic college students, in their own voices. Overarching categories of college persistence and attainment were identified. With further rigorous analysis, the themes of past barriers and negative college experiences were generated. Finally, themes of self-efficacy, positive feelings, succeeding, additional support, cultural awakening, and hope emerged from the data.

Past barriers

Barriers encountered by Hispanic college students appeared to take on a deep, complex role due to relationship of the family and the student’s role within their family. The challenges and barriers expressed by Hispanic college students marked frustration within the family system context, particularly pertaining to transitioning from high school to college. Students expressed a lack of seamless transition which was intensified when accompanied by barriers imposed by the university system. Each qualitative article identified multifaceted obstacles in beginning the college process. These barriers included difficulty with issues of poverty or extreme poverty, limited support by parents due to the lack of college cultural knowledge, and poor parental assistance with homework assignments. Further barriers included low English proficiency among first-generation Hispanic students, discrimination and adversity, minimal exposure to positive role models, poor peer support, and an intense fear of failure in higher education.

Negative college experience

Social hardships and feelings of marginalization were expressed by Hispanic college students when entering the college environment. Hispanic college students expressed feeling overwhelmed at the challenges they faced in the new, complex world of academia. Feelings of alienation were common when confronted with racism, sexism, and additional microaggressions. Some Hispanic college students in this qualitative data expressed bewilderment and confusion about the multiple negative experiences encountered in higher education. Early in their college career, Hispanic students expressed a mismatch between the supportive experiences at home and their negative encounters at college. This mismatch, in combination with being from an underrepresented cultural group, appeared to contribute to intensified feelings of rejection.

Self-efficacy

This theme emerged from the personal characteristics of resilience and effectiveness among Hispanic college students. In spite of common barriers and negative college experiences, Hispanic college students were able to persevere in adverse academic cultures. Within this data set, statements of inner-strength, efficiency, usefulness, and value were common. Articulation of positive perspectives and ambition were evident in the way in which Hispanic college students made sense of their academic journey. Over the course of their college career, many Hispanic college students found their voice, became assertive, and engaged in campus or community activities to promote social justice change. This involvement appeared to enhance the students’ developmental self-discovery, resiliency, self-efficacy, and belief in self. These intrinsic factors appeared to motivate Hispanic college students to become responsible role models and leaders. For some students, transition into college was less difficult due to strong self-efficacy and ability to assimilate into the college culture.

Positive feelings

The theme of positive feelings emerged from the optimistic expressions made by Hispanic college students within our analysis. Articulation of feeling safe and confronting adversity appeared to contribute to the development of a strong self-identity for many students. Voices that once communicated negative feelings toward college had shifted to a focus of potential for success once achieving the goal of a college degree. Positive feelings were generated when understanding and awareness increased concerning the transformative nature a college degree could have on changing a life of poverty into a life of opportunities. Statements and experiences revealed that education was a strong value. A renewed sense of openness, appreciation, and insight appeared to accompany these positive feelings.

Succeeding

Expression of positive feelings led to the next theme of succeeding in the college setting. Hispanic college students, within this data set, appeared to understand that a college education was earned and not given. These students recognized hard work and purposeful studying could lead to a successful college career. Without the assistance of family to help them navigate through a university system, Hispanic college students made personal connections with other successful individuals and attempted to mirror their successes. As these students persisted, they understood the culture of college and found their unique path within their journey in higher education. Hispanic college students articulated their ability and could visualize successful accomplishments. Success was defined in various ways. In some cases, Hispanic college students simply grasped the expectations of university professors, which in turn led to successful outcomes.

Additional support

While the theme of past barriers involved undesirable conditions with family and peers, these researchers found many students reportedly experienced the exact opposite during their college trajectory. Some Hispanic college students expressed having tremendous support from their family. Although parents could not contribute monetarily or by personal experience, they provided unconditional love and emotional support of the students’ educational pursuit. Many friends, peers, and community members emotionally supported these students. Some of these support structures were built through relationships in afterschool programs during high school or summer programs and continued on into their college careers. Other Hispanic college students found support structures once they arrived on campus through Hispanic-themed residence halls, cultural centers or organizations.

Cultural awakening

The theme of cultural awakening emerged in various ways for Hispanic college students. Self-knowledge and cultural identity were ongoing experiences for many students. With some students, the cultural awakening was purposeful and students took college courses that would enhance their awareness of the Hispanic culture. For others, refuge was found in cultural organizations and awakenings occurred with their engagement in campus activities. Hispanic college students appeared to gravitate toward individuals who had similar ethnic experiences. A sense of cultural pride in heritage, history, and tradition appeared to replace the prior feelings of alienation due to racism and discrimination. Students expressed empowerment in this cultural awakening. Through this experience, Hispanic college students chose to mentor the next generation of Hispanic college students as a way of giving back.

Hope

The final theme identified from the content analysis was the Hispanic college student’s belief and hope in a positive future. Students were able move beyond challenges and work through feelings of discouragement and inferiority to establish a framework to guide them toward a hopeful outcome. These students were able to voice the larger purpose in their lives and expressed confidence that they would achieve their future goals and have a successful life. Hispanic college students expressed optimism, courage, and hopeful expectations for enhanced opportunities after college. Students expressed a future-oriented emphasis on their career and were determined to succeed.

Discussion

The authors recognized two separate realities of the Hispanic college students. These realities were interwoven and complex, but aid in telling the complete story of Hispanic students’ quest in achieving a college degree. These realities are identified as those stressors which work against a student’s persistence to degree as well as the environmental and personal conditions which assure and reinforce a student’s journey in higher education.

The first realities are the barriers students faced while still in high school, as well as the negative issues they faced once in college. Resilience in overcoming barriers, in and out of the academic system, can enhance the perseverance necessary for college degree attainment. For many Hispanic college students, confronting the nonacademic challenges can be a daunting and demoralizing process (Hahs-Vaughn, 2004). Feelings of hopelessness are intensified when students receive little support from parental figures (Jenkins, 2009) and peers. As supported by prior research, persistence in college is often related to the support students received in high school (Cabrera & Padilla, 2004; Storlie & Jach, 2012), and support they received from parents, friends, or community members (Cabrera & Padilla, 2004; Campa, 2010; Gonzalez, Barr, & Wanat, 2010).

The story of Hispanic college students, as told by this content analysis, also identified a second reality. Hispanic college students with strong support systems and resilient personalities did overcome barriers related to obtaining a college degree. The inner-desire to succeed appeared to drive these students beyond initial hurdles of leaving high school and transitioning into college. Furthermore, the students with positive feelings toward their college attainment goal appeared to develop a strong sense of self-efficacy. Self-efficacy and determination also appeared to evolve through the experiences Hispanic college students encountered once in college. Supportive college organizations, residence halls, class courses, and personnel helped generate the cultural pride necessary to overcome past cultural barriers and obstacles. Once students realized they could overcome the barriers, they started to focus their sights on life beyond college. This includes the ability to see the bigger picture, beyond the boundaries of college. Students were able to focus on their career, a bright future, the greater purpose in life, and ultimately, the road out of poverty.

The road to success for these Hispanic college students cannot be fully understood by empirical studies alone. Qualitative research is an essential avenue in which one can capture a student’s deepest fears and challenges, as well as dreams and aspirations about the college process. This content analysis on the qualitative research on the experience of Hispanic college students within the HJBS is not without its limitations. Despite rigorous analysis of 1,060 generated findings, only six articles met the criteria outlined for this content analysis. This provided us with limited data resources in which to pull together a comprehensive picture of the experience of Hispanic college students. In addition, these researchers chose to access the findings via the online advanced search engine in HJBS. Potential errors within the advanced search option, within the online journal, may have further contributed to a low number of qualitative research articles that met our criteria. With the multiple measures taken to ensure credibility of our results, these researchers hope to reiterate the continued need for more studies on the qualitative experience of Hispanic college students, particularly within the HJBS. We charge future researchers to answer this call and incorporate various qualitative theoretical traditions in future studies with this population. Moreover, we echo Padilla and Lindholm (1984) in the quest for future qualitative research within the HJBS to investigate issues and stressors of life span development.

Conclusion

Hispanic students have various factors contributing to their success in college, prior to their first step in a college classroom. The voices of Hispanic college students in this content analysis were deafening with their desire and persistence to attain a college degree. Through the breadth and depth of these experiences, we can continue to advocate for this population and encourage academic institutions to provide the cultural, social, and academic support that is lacking for Hispanic college students. Hispanic college student experiences can be fully appreciated through qualitative research methods in which expression of these life accounts are conducted through students using their own voices. The experiences of Hispanic college students are complex, but action can be taken to eliminate many variables which contribute to the low numbers of Hispanic college students.

Footnotes

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The authors declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The authors received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Author Biographies

Cassandra A. Storlie received her PhD in counselor education and supervision from the University of Iowa. She is an assistant professor in the Department of Counseling and Human Development Services at Kent State University. She teaches individual counseling procedures and internship to graduate students majoring in clinical mental health counseling. As a committed advocate for diverse individuals, she presently chairs the ACES Advocacy Network and the Counselor Community Engagement Committee for CSI, International. Her research lines of inquiry center on leadership development within counselor education and developmental issues among marginalized populations. As a Latina, she is focused on social justice and career development of undocumented Latino youth.

Luis S. Moreno is the dean of student services at Sauk Valley Community College in Dixon, Illinois. He received his bachelor of science in law enforcement administration and master of science in recreation, park, and tourism administration from Western Illinois University. He is a PhD candidate at the University of Iowa in the Higher Education and Student Affairs program. His research interests include cultural capital knowledge and attainment, as well as the retention efforts for first-generation college students.

Tarrell Awe Agahe Portman of White River Cherokee descent received her PhD from The University of Arkansas, Fayetteville. She is an associate professor in counselor education and supervision program at The University of Iowa. She teaches doctoral-level qualitative research classes. She has authored or coauthored 3 books, more than 61 articles/book chapters and has more than 130 national presentations. She is the immediate past president of the national Association for Multicultural Counseling and Development. She has served as the chair of The University of Iowa Native American Faculty and Staff council. Her research is focused on multiculturalism in the societal context—particularly indigenous peoples.

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