Language Brokering and Self-Concept

Abstract

This exploratory study examined the relationships among individual characteristics, language brokering experiences and attitudes, and multiple dimensions of self-concept among a sample of Latino adolescents. The sample was comprised of 66 Latino students in 6th through 11th grades who were proficient in both Spanish and English. Results from regression analyses and correlational analyses showed that language brokering frequency was negatively associated with academic self-concept and perceived popularity at school, language brokering difficulty was a positive predictor of academic self-concept, and language brokering attitudes were positively related to academic self-concept, perceived popularity with peers, and confidence in one’s physical appearance. Students who were first-generation immigrants not only reported brokering more frequently, brokering in more difficult situations, and feeling more positive about language brokering, but also reported lower emotional well-being as compared to students born in the United States. Implications of the findings and directions for future research are discussed.

Keywords

language brokering self-concept Latino students adolescence

Children of immigrant parents are typically the first members of their family to learn English and acquire cultural knowledge of their new country due to daily exposure to American peers and cultural trends while attending U.S. schools (Padilla, 2006). Consequently, many children from immigrant families engage in the process of “language brokering,” which has been described as “interpreting and translating performed by bilinguals in daily situations without any special training” (Tse, 1995, p. 181). Through language brokering, children represent their family in public and serve as cultural and linguistic mediators between people with different worldviews and social positions (Sanchez & Orellana, 2006).

Given the large and growing population of non-English speaking immigrants in the United States, language brokering has become an important topic of research over the past several years (Morales & Hanson, 2005). Previous studies have explored the typical characteristics of children who are language brokers (e.g., McQuillan & Tse, 1995), the effects of language brokering on cognitive and academic skills (e.g., Buriel, Perez, de Ment, Chavez, & Moran, 1998), and the effects of language brokering on family relationships (e.g., Orellana, 2003). However, little attention has been given to the relationship between language brokering and self-concept (i.e., an individual’s beliefs about himself or herself across a variety of domains). Given the importance of self-concept beliefs to positive developmental outcomes (e.g., school success; Valentine, DuBois, & Cooper, 2004), the goal of the present study was to determine the extent to which students’ language brokering experiences were associated with multiple dimensions of self-concept during an important developmental period—the middle and high school years.

Review of Language Brokering Literature

Past studies have revealed inconsistent findings regarding language brokers’ perceptions of and feelings toward brokering tasks. Research suggests that adolescent language brokers experience various emotions associated with this task ranging from positive emotions (such as feeling helpful, happy, proud, and confident) to negative emotions (such as feeling embarrassed, angry, obligated, and anxious; Corona et al., 2012; Weisskirch, 2007). Adolescents tend to perceive language brokering as an activity enabling them to help their family (Corona et al., 2012), but also report that it can be a source of stress accompanied by many adult-like responsibilities (Morales, Yakushko, & Castro, 2012).

The connections between language brokering, socioemotional well-being, and academic outcomes are also not well understood in the current literature. Some research indicates positive outcomes associated with language brokering including more advanced linguistic and cognitive abilities (Diaz-Lazaro, 2002; Walinchowski, 2001), closer bonds with family (DeMent & Buriel, 1999), and higher academic achievement (Buriel et al., 1998; Orellana, 2003). Other research indicates negative outcomes associated with brokering including increased family stress levels, lower parenting effectiveness due to role reversals between children and parents, and poor psychological adjustment and substance use among adolescent brokers (Martinez, McClure, & Eddy, 2009). Language brokering may also be linked to an increased risk for depression among adolescents (Love & Buriel, 2007). As evidenced by these research findings, the extant literature provides a mixed picture regarding the potential benefits and disadvantages of language brokering. However, one area that has been neglected in the literature is the link between language brokering and students’ self-beliefs (Morales & Hanson, 2005).

Importance of Self-Concept

Self-concept is defined as an individual’s perception of himself or herself based on interactions with the environment and personal interpretation of experiences (Shavelson, Hubner, & Stanton, 1976). Because self-concept is a multidimensional construct (Shavelson et al., 1976), it is important to consider students’ self-perceptions across a variety of domains including academic, social, emotional, and behavioral. Indeed, research has consistently shown that students’ self-beliefs are positively associated with important developmental outcomes including higher academic performance (Valentine et al., 2004), improved mental health (Ward, Sylva, & Gresham, 2010), and better relationships with family and peers (Gibson & Jefferson, 2006). Among Latino adolescents in particular, previous studies have shown that students’ self-beliefs contribute significantly to their educational success (Acoach & Webb, 2004; Buriel et al., 1998; Niehaus, Rudasill, & Adelson, 2012) and their ability to maintain positive relationships with family members (Weisskirch, 2007). Thus, it is important to understand what factors may help foster more positive self-beliefs among this group of students. Particularly among adolescent language brokers, there is a need to explore how language brokering experiences and attitudes may predict various dimensions of self-concept, which could, in turn, affect key academic and behavioral outcomes for these youth.

Purpose of the Current Study

The goal of the present study was to examine the relationship between adolescents’ language brokering experiences and their self-concept beliefs across multiple dimensions including academic competencies, social skills, emotional well-being, and behavioral adjustment. To our knowledge, no previous studies in this area have examined multiple dimensions of self-concept (academic, social, emotional, and behavioral) at the same time, which was a strength of the current study. An additional strength of this study was its geographic location. This study was conducted in the Southeastern United States, which has a fast-growing immigrant population (e.g., the Latino population has more than doubled in this area within the last decade; Passel, Cohn, & Lopez, 2011) that has not received much attention in the language brokering literature. In emerging Latino communities, such as this one, language brokering may present additional challenges as fewer supports are available for immigrant students and families (Corona et al., 2012; Martinez et al., 2009). Thus, this study provides needed information on the experiences of adolescent language brokers in an under-researched geographic area.

A secondary goal of our study was to determine the extent to which individual characteristics were related to both language brokering and self-concept among Latino adolescents. Previous research has focused on a few key individual characteristics associated with language brokering (e.g., females and older children tend to engage in language brokering more frequently; Morales & Hanson, 2005), but there is limited information regarding how other individual characteristics (e.g., whether students are U.S. born or foreign born and whether their native language is English or Spanish) may be related to language brokering experiences and attitudes (Martinez et al., 2009). Even less is known about how these characteristics may be associated with various dimensions of self-concept among adolescent brokers. To that end, the following research questions were addressed:

Research Question 1: To what extent are individual characteristics (i.e., gender, age, country of origin, and native language) associated with language brokering experiences and attitudes?

Research Question 2: Controlling for individual characteristics, do language brokering experiences and attitudes predict multiple dimensions of self-concept?

Method

Participants

Participants were 66 Latino students (35% female, 65% male) enrolled in middle or high school in a large public school district in the Southeastern United States. The students’ ages ranged from 11 to 16 years with 39% in 6th grade, 24% in 7th grade, 14% in 8th grade, 11% in 9th grade, 6% in 10th grade, and 6% in 11th grade. The majority of the students (49%) were born in the United States, while 21% were from Cuba, 18% were from Mexico, and the remaining 12% were from Guatemala, Peru, El Salvador, Bolivia, Argentina, or Ecuador. Students had been in the United States for an average of 9 years (ranging from 1 month to 16 years), and approximately 96% of the participants were eligible for free or reduced-price lunch at school. All of the students in this sample were drawn from a community-based organization designed to foster academic success and postsecondary readiness among Latino adolescents. We chose this particular organization as our study sample because all students involved in the organization were bilingual with proficiency in both Spanish and English, thus allowing them to report on possible English-to-Spanish and Spanish-to-English language brokering experiences.

The community-based program was held in three different locations and on three different days: Wednesdays after school at one of the district’s public middle schools (which was an all-boys school), Thursdays after school at a different public middle school (which served both males and females), and Saturdays in a community center (also serving both males and females). Students only attended the program 1 day a week; thus, there were different students present at each site. The program accepted any Latino student who signed a behavioral contract in which they agreed to attend the program regularly, follow basic rules, and strive for academic and personal growth (parental consent was also required). There was no grade point average (GPA) requirement for participating in the program; thus, students came from a wide range of achievement levels ranging from academically at-risk students who were not performing well in school to high-achieving students who were enrolled in advanced courses at school. The program used a variety of methods for recruiting students (e.g., letters, phone calls, attending “welcome nights” and “open houses” at schools, meeting with teachers and counselors at schools with large Latino populations, etc.).

Measures

Demographic questionnaire

Students completed a personal information form that asked gender, age, date of birth, and grade level. There were four additional questions asking about birthplace, length of time living in the United States, native language, and primary home language.

Language brokering experience

The Language Brokering Scale (LBS; Buriel et al., 1998) is a 49-item instrument that assesses individuals’ experiences in language brokering situations, as well as their feelings about brokering. The self-report questionnaire consists of four sections. The Persons section uses a 4-point, Likert-type scale (ranging from 1 = never to 4 = always) to measure the frequency with which one brokers for family, friends, teachers, neighbors, or strangers. The Places section uses a dichotomous scale (0 = no, 1 = yes) and measures the difficulty or complexity of locations where one has brokered, with more difficult locations (e.g., the hospital) given more weight than less difficult locations (e.g., home). Similarly, the Things section (0 = no, 1 = yes) measures the difficulty of different documents that one has translated with more complex documents (e.g., immigration forms) given more weight than less complex documents (e.g., telephone bills). Finally, the Feelings section measures one’s attitude and feelings about brokering on a 4-point, Likert-type scale ranging from 1 = never to 4 = always.

For the current study, we calculated three separate variables to include in our analyses. The first variable, Language Brokering Frequency (α = .67), was calculated by summing the 10 items that comprised the Persons section (all tapping into how often one brokers). Because the items on the Places and Things sections are highly similar in meaning (i.e., both measure the difficulty or complexity of language brokering experiences) and have high internal consistency (α = .90), these 24 items were summed in order to create the second variable, Language Brokering Difficulty. The third variable, Language Brokering Attitudes (α = .74), was calculated by summing the 15 items that comprised the Feelings section of the survey. Higher scores on these variables, respectively, would indicate that an individual brokers more frequently, brokers in more difficult or complex situations, and has more positive attitudes toward brokering.

Self-concept

Students’ self-concept beliefs were measured with the Piers–Harris Children’s Self-Concept Scale–Second Edition (Piers-Harris 2; Piers, Harris, & Herzberg, 2002), which is designed for children and adolescents aged 7 to 18. This 60-item, self-report instrument uses a dichotomous scale (0 = no, 1 = yes) and measures self-concept across six domains: Behavioral Adjustment (i.e., few behavioral problems at home and school), Intellectual and School Status (i.e., beliefs about one’s academic abilities), Physical Appearance and Attributes (i.e., confidence in one’s appearance), Freedom From Anxiety (i.e., low anxiety and worrying), Popularity (i.e., feeling accepted and well liked by peers), and Happiness and Satisfaction (i.e., sense of positive emotional well-being). A Total score can also be computed from all 60 items. Items are summed to calculate each dimension with higher scores indicating higher self-concept. Reliability estimates for the current sample were as follows: Behavioral Adjustment (14 items; α = .80), Intellectual and School Status (16 items; α = 65), Physical Appearance and Attributes (11 items; α = .76), Freedom From Anxiety (14 items; α = .78), Popularity (12 items; α = .54), Happiness and Satisfaction (10 items; α = .79), and Total Self-Concept (60 items; α = .89).

Procedure

All data were collected during the 2010-2011 school year. The lead investigator traveled to all three program sites during the first week of the program and administered the survey packet to all students who were present on those days. In addition, the program director took additional copies of the survey packet and ensured that students who were not present were able to complete the surveys the next week. Thus, all data were collected at either the first or second program meeting of the year (all in September), with the exception of four students who entered the program in the spring semester and completed their survey packet at that time. Because all students were proficient in both English and Spanish according to the program director, all surveys were administered in English. Survey administration lasted approximately 30 minutes. Identification codes were used on all survey packets to protect confidentiality.

Data Analysis

All analyses were conducted using Mplus statistical software (Muthén & Muthén, 1998-2010). Because we wanted to reduce the likelihood of bias in our analyses due to missing data, we used multiple imputation to impute 10 data sets, as recommended by Enders (2010). Values were imputed for 20 items on the LBS, 9 items on the Piers-Harris 2, and the variable Country of Origin. Data were missing for 35 of the possible 7,326 responses across all variables used in the analyses (0.48%). The imputed data sets were then used to answer Research Questions 1 and 2. See Table 1 for descriptive statistics for both the original and imputed data.

Table 1.

Means and Standard Deviations for Original and Imputed Data.

	Original data			Imputed data
Variable	n	M	SD	n	M	SD
Gender	66	1.65	0.48	66	1.65	0.48
Age	66	12.56	1.45	66	12.56	1.45
Country of Origin	65	0.49	0.50	66	0.49	0.50
Native Language	66	0.21	0.41	66	0.21	0.41
Language Brokering Variables
Language Brokering Frequency	65	15.80	3.48	66	15.74	3.46
Language Brokering Difficulty	60	17.80	13.64	66	17.95	13.15
Language Brokering Attitudes	66	38.77	6.23	66	38.77	6.23
Self-Concept Variables
Behavioral Adjustment	64	11.53	2.69	66	11.59	2.65
Freedom From Anxiety	65	11.63	2.61	66	11.63	2.57
Happiness/Satisfaction	65	8.45	2.09	66	8.47	2.07
Intellectual/School Status	65	12.52	2.56	66	12.55	2.52
Physical Appearance	63	8.48	2.39	66	8.42	2.35
Popularity	64	9.36	1.91	66	9.40	1.89
Overall Self-Concept	58	47.50	8.50	66	42.33	7.38

For Research Question 1, bivariate correlations were calculated to determine the extent to which individual characteristics were associated with language brokering experiences and attitudes. For Research Question 2, which asked about the extent to which individual characteristics and language brokering experiences and attitudes predicted self-concept, ordinary least squares (OLS) regression was conducted.

Results

Research Question 1

Examination of bivariate correlations revealed several statistically significant relationships among student characteristics, language brokering experiences, and language brokering attitudes. Specifically, Language Brokering Frequency was associated with Country of Origin (r = −.271, p = .019), such that foreign-born students reported brokering more frequently as compared with U.S.-born students. Two student characteristics were associated with Language Brokering Difficulty: Age (r = .370, p = .001) and Country of Origin (r = −.408, p < .001). These results indicate that older adolescents and students born outside the United States reported brokering in more difficult or complex situations. For Language Brokering Attitudes, results showed that foreign-born students (r = −.379, p < .001) had more positive feelings toward brokering. There were also positive, statistically significant relationships among the three language brokering variables. Interestingly, gender was not associated with any of the language brokering variables. See Table 2 for the full correlation matrix.

Table 2.

Correlation Matrix.

	Variable	1	2	3	4	5	6	7	8	9	10	11	12	13	14
1	Gender	—
2	Age	−.112	—
3	Country	−.047	.033	—
4	Native Lang.	.146	.004	.330**	—
5	LB Frequency	.039	.142	−.271*	−.186	—
6	LB Difficulty	−.033	.370**	−.408**	−.230	.469**	—
7	LB Attitudes	−.083	−.014	−.379**	−.189	.361**	.512**	—
8	Beh. Adj.	−.077	−.146	−.100	−.213	−.106	.035	.088	—
9	Freedom Anx.	.143	−.262*	.136	.057	−.019	−.145	−.008	.344**	—
10	Happiness	−.065	−.103	.232*	.043	−.102	−.039	.104	.455**	.733**	—
11	Intellectual	.032	−.101	−.206	−.170	−.066	.247*	.243*	.652**	.268*	.482**	—
12	Physical App.	−.056	.027	.066	−.016	−.040	.190	.259*	.382**	.436**	.722**	.625**	—
13	Popularity	.019	−.020	.040	−.063	−.178	.083	.241*	.307**	.522**	.659**	.413**	.641**	—
14	Overall SC	−.005	−.190	−.001	−.155	−.091	.082	.191	.770**	.652**	.817**	.806**	.773**	.671**	—

Note. Country = Country of Origin; Native Lang. = Native Language; LB = Language Brokering; Beh. Adj. = Behavioral Adjustment; Freedom Anx. = Freedom From Anxiety; Happiness = Happiness and Satisfaction; Intellectual = Intellectual and School Status; Physical App. = Physical Appearance and Attributes; Overall SC = Overall Self-Concept.

p < .05. **p < .01.

Research Question 2

Preliminary analyses

Prior to conducting the OLS regression analyses, correlations among student characteristics, language brokering experiences and attitudes, and self-concept dimensions were examined. Preliminary analyses showed that Freedom From Anxiety was negatively correlated with Age (r = −.262, p = .022), such that older adolescents reported higher anxiety levels as compared with younger adolescents. Country of Origin was associated with Happiness and Satisfaction (r = .232, p = .046), indicating that U.S.-born students reported more positive emotional well-being than foreign-born students. There was a positive correlation between Intellectual and School Status and Language Brokering Difficulty (r = .247, p = .033) and also between Intellectual and School Status and Language Brokering Attitudes (r = .243, p = .036). These findings indicate that students who brokered in more complex situations and who had more positive attitudes toward brokering believed that they were more capable of being academically successful at school. Students who had more positive feelings toward language brokering also rated themselves higher on Popularity (r = .241, p = .038) and Physical Appearance and Attributes (r = .259, p = .024). There were statistically significant, positive correlations among all of the self-concept dimensions (displayed in Table 2).

Regression analyses

Seven total regression analyses were conducted, one for each of the six dimensions of self-concept in addition to the overall self-concept rating. The following predictor variables were entered in the regression equation: Age, Country of Origin (0 = foreign born, 1 = U.S. born), Native Language (0 = reported Spanish as first language, 1 = reported English as first language or reported learning English and Spanish at the same time), Language Brokering Frequency, Language Brokering Difficulty, and Language Brokering Attitudes.¹ Only statistically significant results are discussed below, but full results from the regression analyses can be seen in Table 3.

Table 3.

Results From Regression Analyses.

	Behavioral Adjustment				Freedom From Anxiety				Happiness/Satisfaction				Intellectual/School Status
	b	SE	β	R² (F)	b	SE	β	R ² (F)	b	SE	β	R ² (F)	b	SE	β	R ² (F)
				.098 (1.411)				.095 (1.384)				.120 (1.601)				.179* (2.089)
Age	−0.276	0.242	−.151		−0.472	0.236	−.265*		−0.173	0.187	−.121		−0.313	0.220	−.180
Country	−0.088	0.733	−.017		0.827	0.713	.161		1.363	0.563	.329*		−0.294	0.669	−.058
Native Lang.	−1.365	0.812	−.211		0.119	0.790	.019		−0.135	0.628	−.027		−0.621	0.739	−.101
LB Frequency	−0.150	0.103	−.196		0.047	0.100	.063		−0.069	0.080	−.116		−0.202	0.094	−.276*
LB Difficulty	0.019	0.034	.096		−0.006	0.033	−.029		0.011	0.026	.073		0.063	0.031	.330*
LB Attitudes	0.026	0.062	.061		0.018	0.060	.044		0.075	0.047	.226		0.053	0.056	.130
	Physical Appearance				Popularity				Overall Self–Concept
	b	SE	β	R ² (F)	b	SE	β	R ² (F)	b	SE	β	R ² (F)
				.142 (1.765)				.163 (1.954)				.141 (1.772)
Age	−0.056	0.210	−.035		−0.019	0.166	−.015		−1.193	0.659	−.234
Country	1.060	0.652	.226		0.589	0.504	.156		2.314	1.989	.157
Native Lang.	−0.098	0.701	−.017		−0.389	0.558	−.084		−2.939	2.208	−.163
LB Frequency	−0.129	0.089	−.190		−0.177	0.071	−.325*		−0.439	0.281	−.206
LB Difficulty	0.041	0.029	.231		0.016	0.023	.108		0.108	0.092	.193
LB Attitudes	0.110	0.053	.291*		0.105	0.042	.346*		0.227	0.167	.191

Note. Country = Country of Origin; Native Lang. = Native Language; LB = Language Brokering.

p < .05.

Behavioral adjustment

The regression model accounted for approximately 10% of the variance in students’ Behavioral Adjustment scores (R² = .098, p = .158). None of the individual predictors was statistically significant.

Freedom from anxiety

The regression model accounted for approximately 10% of the variance in students’ Freedom From Anxiety scores (R² = .095, p = .167). Age was the only variable that significantly predicted Freedom From Anxiety. Specifically, older students reported lower Freedom From Anxiety as compared with younger students (β = −.265, p = .040).

Happiness and satisfaction

Approximately 12% of the variance in students’ Happiness and Satisfaction was explained by the regression model (R² = .120, p = .109). Country of Origin was the only significant predictor in the equation, such that U.S.-born students reported higher Happiness and Satisfaction than students born outside the United States (β = .329, p = .012).

Intellectual and school status

The regression model accounted for approximately 18% of the variance in students’ reports of Intellectual and School Status (R² = .179, p = .037).The two strongest predictors in the equation were Language Brokering Frequency (β = −.276, p = .028) and Language Brokering Difficulty (β = .330, p = .035), though the directions of these relationships were opposite from one another. More specifically, students who reported engaging in more difficult or complex language brokering situations reported higher academic self-concept, while students who reported engaging in all types of language brokering tasks at a more frequent rate believed that they were less capable of academic success.

Physical appearance and attributes

The regression model accounted for approximately 14% of the variance in Physical Appearance and Attributes (R² = .142, p = .078). Language Brokering Attitudes was a positive predictor of Physical Appearance and Attributes (β = .291, p = .034), such that students who felt more positively about language brokering also felt more confident about their physical appearance at school.

Popularity

Approximately 16% of the variance in students’ reports of Popularity was explained by the regression model (R² = .163, p = .051). Two variables were significant predictors of Popularity: Language Brokering Frequency (β = −.325, p = .010) and Language Brokering Attitudes (β = .346, p = .010). Thus, students who reported engaging in language brokering experiences more frequently felt that they were less popular with peers at school, while students who had more positive attitudes about language brokering in general reported that they felt more connected to peers at school.

Overall self-concept

The regression model accounted for approximately 14% of the variance in students’ overall self-concept scores (R² = .141, p = .076). None of the individual predictors was statistically significant.

Discussion

In this exploratory study of adolescents’ language brokering experiences, language brokering attitudes, and self-concept beliefs, two main findings emerged from regression and correlational analyses. First, students’ reports of language brokering frequency, difficulty, and attitudes were significant predictors of several dimensions of self-concept, but the nature of their relationships with self-concept were quite different from one another. In particular, language brokering frequency was a negative predictor of academic self-concept and students’ perceived popularity at school, while language brokering difficulty contributed positively to students’ academic self-concept. In addition, positive attitudes toward brokering were also positively related to academic self-concept, perceived popularity with peers, and students’ confidence in their physical appearance. Second, students’ self-beliefs and language brokering experiences and attitudes were significantly related to whether they were first-generation immigrants to the United States (defined in this study as foreign-born students who immigrated to the United States after birth). More specifically, students who were first-generation immigrants (vs. students who were born in the United States) reported brokering more frequently, brokering in more difficult situations, and feeling more positively about brokering. However, first-generation immigrants also reported lower happiness and satisfaction. Each of these findings will be discussed below along with implications of the findings and directions for future research.

Language Brokering and Self-Concept

One of the most interesting findings stemming from this study was that students’ language brokering experiences and attitudes contributed to their self-concept beliefs in different ways. While language brokering frequency was negatively associated with certain aspects of self-concept, language brokering difficulty and language brokering attitudes were positively associated with various dimensions of self-concept. More specifically, students who reported brokering in more difficult or complex situations believed that they were more capable of being academically successful in the classroom. Although previous research has shown a significant link between language brokering experiences and academic self-beliefs (Acoach & Webb, 2004), the current study narrowed this link specifically to the nature of the language brokering tasks that students engage in (i.e., how challenging the tasks are). Perhaps, successfully performing a challenging language brokering task may contribute to feelings of mastery, and according to Bandura’s social cognitive theory, mastery experiences contribute to more positive self-beliefs (i.e., self-efficacy; Bandura, 1997). Thus, successfully brokering in complex situations may help increase students’ confidence in their abilities to master a variety of difficult tasks, including academic tasks in the classroom. Indeed, previous research has shown a positive relationship between language brokering experiences and academic achievement (Acoach & Webb, 2004, Buriel et al., 1998; Dorner, Orellana, & Li-Grining, 2007), and interestingly, Buriel et al. (1998) found that the difficulty and variety of locations that one had brokered in was the single most important aspect of language brokering in predicting achievement. It is possible, then, that academic self-concept may serve as a mediating variable in the relationship between certain aspects of language brokering (i.e., task difficulty) and academic achievement, though this hypothesis clearly warrants further research.

In contrast, the frequency with which students engaged in language brokering tasks was a negative predictor of both academic self-concept and perceived popularity with peers. When looking at individual items on the LBS that were significantly associated with Intellectual and School Status and Popularity, two interesting findings emerged. First, students’ ratings on Intellectual and School Status were significantly correlated with the item “How often do you translate for teachers?” (r = −.109, p = .043), suggesting that frequent brokering for teachers is associated with decreased academic self-concept for students. This finding may also relate back to Bandura’s social cognitive theory and the importance of modeling (Bandura, 1997). For example, if students feel that they need to “help out” their teacher because he or she is not competent or does not demonstrate high teacher efficacy, they may not believe that they have a good role model to look to in building their own academic self-beliefs. Regarding perceived popularity, students’ ratings were most strongly correlated with the LBS item that read “How often do you translate for friends?” (r = −.349, p < .001). This finding is particularly interesting because it suggests that students who broker more frequently for peers feel like they are less accepted by peers, have a harder time making friends, and have fewer friends at school.

In looking at the relationships between language brokering frequency, academic self-concept, and perceived popularity with peers, the primary implications are that it may be detrimental to students’ self-beliefs when they are asked to broker for teachers and peers on a frequent basis in the classroom. One reason for this is that it may place the language broker in an uncomfortable situation that disrupts the nature of teacher-student and student-student relationships. Particularly among students from Latino cultures, the teacher-student relationship is often viewed as hierarchical in nature where the teacher is the expert and the authority figure (Sue & Sue, 2008). However, if the student is frequently brokering for the teacher, that may upset the typical hierarchy and make the student feel like he or she needs to be the one helping the teacher rather than the other way around. Likewise, classmates and peers of the same age should be on an equal level, but if one student is frequently asked to broker for other students, this may introduce a social hierarchy that is not typically present. Recent research suggests that Latino adolescents who language broker are also more likely to perceive discrimination in the school context compared with those who do not broker (Benner & Graham, 2011), which could lead to further feelings of alienation from peers. As such, teachers and other adults who work in schools may want to be cautious about asking bilingual students to translate or interpret on a frequent basis in the classroom and should consider how these brokering experiences may affect students’ views of their academic abilities and interpersonal relationships.

When considering these findings, it is also important to note the developmental level of the students in this study (i.e., the average age was 12.56 years and 77% of the students were in middle school, classifying them as early adolescents). Previous research has suggested that language brokering may be more stressful and associated with more negative psychological outcomes for early adolescents (Weisskirch & Alva, 2002), as they do not have as many cognitive resources or coping skills to handle various brokering situations. Thus, the negative associations between brokering frequency, academic self-concept, and perceived popularity may be related to the developmental stage of this sample, and different findings may emerge when studying late adolescents.

First-Generation Immigrants

One strength of the current study was that the sample was split evenly between U.S.-born students (49%) and foreign-born students (51%), which allowed us to compare the two groups. Analyses revealed several significant differences between students who were first-generation immigrants (who had lived in the country an average of 6 years) and students who were born in the United States (second generation, third generation, or higher). More specifically, first-generation immigrants brokered more frequently, brokered in more difficult situations, and had more positive attitudes toward brokering than U.S.-born students. However, students who were first-generation immigrants also reported significantly lower happiness and satisfaction scores, suggesting that they experienced lower emotional well-being as compared with U.S-born students. These findings are not surprising considering that many students who have recently immigrated to the United States face a variety of stressful environmental conditions (e.g., family separations, poverty, discrimination, and cultural conflicts between home and school) that place them at an increased risk for negative student outcomes (Short & Boyson, 2012; Suárez-Orozco, Suárez-Orozco, & Todorova, 2008). Given the risk factors that are often present in their environmental contexts, in combination with results from the present study suggesting that immigrant students may experience lower emotional well-being, parents, teachers, and other adults who work with newly arrived students should pay careful attention to their psychological health during this critical adjustment period. Teachers and parents should be aware that immigrant students are vulnerable to mental health concerns and should seek out school or community resources (e.g., individual and group counseling, afterschool programs, newcomer academies) that may be able to help these students cope with some of their concerns. Likewise, future research should invest in studying the development and effectiveness of school- and community-based programs designed to help recently arrived immigrant students and their families make a successful transition to life in the United States (e.g., Nuestras Familias; Martinez et al., 2009).

Limitations and Directions for Future Research

The primary limitations of the current study were related to the nature of the sample. This was a small sample of students that was drawn from one community organization in one geographic location. Because all students participated in the community organization on a voluntary basis, self-selection factors could have influenced the findings of the study (e.g., Latino students who volunteer to participate in such a program may differ in both language brokering experience and self-concept from Latino students who do not volunteer to participate). In addition, because one of the program sites was an all-boys school, there was a gender imbalance in the current study (65% male) that could have affected the results. In particular, we did not find any gender differences in language brokering, which is contrary to much of the previous literature (Morales & Hanson, 2005). The lack of findings regarding gender-related differences could be due to the demographics of this sample (i.e., less variance in gender due to more male students) or could also reflect differences based on geographic location (i.e., this study was conducted in the Southeast, whereas most language brokering studies are conducted in the West or Southwest). Furthermore, the sample included only Spanish-speaking language brokers. Thus, the demographics of the current sample must be carefully considered when extrapolating these findings to students from other language backgrounds, cultural backgrounds, and geographic locales.

Due to the lack of research investigating links between language brokering and self-concept, this exploratory study took an important first step toward better understanding how language brokering experiences contribute to self-beliefs in the academic, social, emotional, and behavioral domains. Future research should continue this line of inquiry, collecting data from larger and more diverse samples of students. This line of research could also be expanded and improved by including data from parents (e.g., parents’ ratings of their children’s socioemotional well-being), teachers (e.g., teachers’ reports of students’ emotions and behaviors displayed in the classroom), and school records (e.g., standardized test scores, grade point averages, attendance records, and discipline referrals). Collecting data from such a wide variety of sources would help provide a more comprehensive picture of how language brokering, self-beliefs, socioemotional well-being, and academic achievement are interrelated. Likewise, exploring additional sources of data may help explain additional variance in students’ self-concept ratings. In the present study, the variables included in the analyses explained between 10% and 18% of the variance in students’ self-concept reports, which means there are many other factors in their lives that contribute to self-concept but were not explored in this study. Thus, future research with language brokering populations should investigate additional factors (e.g., family relationships, peer groups, school environments) that may further explain the development of positive self-concept beliefs among this population of students, which could inform prevention and intervention strategies that seek to promote positive youth development within our schools and communities.

Footnotes

Acknowledgements

The authors would like to thank the students and program staff, particularly the director of the community-based organization, who were involved in data collection.

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The authors declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The authors received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Notes

Author Biographies

Kate Niehaus, PhD, is an assistant professor in the Educational Psychology and Research program in the Department of Educational Studies at the University of South Carolina. She joined the faculty in August 2012 after earning her doctorate in Educational Psychology, Measurement, and Evaluation from the University of Louisville in May 2012. Dr. Niehaus’s primary research interests involve: a) the academic achievement, self-perceptions, and social-emotional well-being of English Language Learners and Latino students, and b) the role of school support and students’ feelings of school connectedness in predicting key academic and behavioral outcomes.

Gerda Kumpiene, MEd, is pursuing her Ph.D. in Special Education at the University of South Carolina. Her research interests include quality of life and social interaction skills, particularly perceiving, developing, and maintaining friendships, of young adults with intellectual disabilities. She has been working as an Independent Living Instructor and academic mentor for the CarolinaLIFE program at the University of South Carolina, serving students with intellectual or cognitive disabilities.

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