Positive Psychology and Familial Factors as Predictors of Latina/o Students’ Hope and College Performance

Abstract

We investigated the contributions of positive psychology and familial factors as predictors of hope and academic performance among 166 Latina/o college students enrolled at a Hispanic Serving Institution of Higher Education. The results indicated that presence of meaning in life, search for meaning in life, daily spiritual experiences, and mother’s educational level were significant predictors of goal-specific hope. None of the positive psychology or familial factors predicted Latina/o students’ college performance.

Keywords

Latina/o students goal-specific hope positive psychology college performance

The Latina/o population is one of the fastest growing groups in the United States (U.S. Census Bureau, 2012). Although college and career services improved for this growing population, Latina/o students pursue postsecondary education with academic, personal, and academic challenges, including low expectations from high school counselors (Malott, 2010; Vela-Gude et al., 2009), low expectations from high school teachers (Cavazos, Cavazos, Hinojosa, & Silva, 2009), discrimination (Edwards & Romero, 2008), and tracking (Cavazos et al., 2009). While educational research is important, there is a dearth of literature regarding factors that influence Latina/o students’ positive psychological functioning (Alvarado & Ricard, 2013; Dunn & O’Brien, 2009; Ruiz, 2002). Researchers must not only examine underrepresented populations in counseling and psychology but also understand factors that contribute to their positive mental health (Dunn & O’Brien, 2009; Nickerson & Fishman, 2013). One of the most important constructs in positive psychology is hope (Snyder et al., 1991). Given that hope is related to academic performance (Snyder et al., 2002), goal attainment (Feldman, Rand, & Kahle-Wrobleski, 2009), and life satisfaction (Marques, Pais-Ribeiro, & Lopez, 2011), investigating the role of hope among Latina/o students is a worthwhile research endeavor.

The purpose of this study is to augment current literature by examining factors that may influence Latina/o college students’ goal-specific hope and academic outcomes. First, we provide a literature review concerning factors that might influence Latina/o students’ goal-specific hope and academic outcomes. We focus on meaning in life, spirituality, parents’ level of education, and generation status as a conceptual framework. Next, we present quantitative findings from 166 Latina/o students from a Hispanic Serving Institution (HSI). Finally, we provide a discussion regarding the importance of these findings.

Strength-Based Approach to the Study of Latina/o Students

Most research with Latina/o youth used a problem-focused approach, labeled Hispanics as at-risk, and focused on barriers or perceptions of challenges (Alvarado & Ricard, 2013; Vela, Lu, Veliz, Johnson, & Castro, 2014). There have been calls for researchers to utilize a strength-based approach to understand factors that contribute to Latina/o students’ positive psychological functioning (Dunn & O’Brien, 2009). One of the most useful conceptual approaches to understand human development is positive psychology (Seligman, 2002). Compared with examining deficits or problems such as anxiety and depression, positive psychology focuses on strengths, psychological well-being, meaning, and life satisfaction. Using a positive psychology paradigm allows researchers to understand factors that contribute to positive psychological functioning among students and/or adults (Seligman, 2002; Snyder & Lopez, 2007). In the context of a positive psychology framework, presence of meaning in life, search for meaning in life, and daily spiritual experiences are important factors to consider when examining positive psychological functioning. A unique finding in the educational and mental health research on Latina/o students is that academic persistence is related to Latina/o college students’ life satisfaction (Ojeda, Castillo, Rosales Meza, & Pina-Watson, 2014) and acculturation to the Anglo culture and enculturation to the Mexican culture are related to Latina/o college students’ college self-efficacy (Aguayo, Ojeda, Herman, & Flores, 2011). Researchers also found that social support was related to presence of meaning in life among Latina/o immigrants (Dunn & O’Brien, 2009), and parents’ education level was related to Mexican American high school students’ educational aspirations. In our study, we use positive psychology and familial constructs as a conceptual framework to understand Latina/o college students’ hope and academic performance.

Meaning in Life

Meaning in life is viewed as a psychological strength (Steger, Frazier, Oishi, & Kaler, 2006) as well as one of three fundamental tenants of positive psychology (Seligman, Ernst, Gillham, Reivich, & Linkins, 2009). Meaning in life refers to a process of self-discovery of meaning and purpose in life (Frankl, 1963). Steger and Shin (2010) proposed two components of meaning in life: (a) presence of meaning in life and (b) search for meaning in life. Presence of meaning in life refers to current attribution of meaning in one’s life, while search for meaning in life relates to motivation toward finding meaning in life (Steger & Shin, 2010). There appears to be a positive relationship between meaning in life and positive mental health outcomes (Brassai, Piko, & Steger, 2011; Steger & Shin, 2010). For example, Brassai et al. (2011) investigated meaning in life among Romanian adolescents. They found that meaning in life as measured by the Purpose and Connections subscale of the Brief Stress and Coping Inventory was a protective factor against health risk behaviors and poor mental health. Another important finding involved the negative relationship between meaninglessness and poor psychological well-being. Although the aforementioned study provided important insight, an important limitation involved the instrument to measure meaning in life. In order to address this limitation, the authors recommended the Meaning in Life Questionnaire (MLQ; Steger & Shin, 2010) to measure meaning in life in future studies. In another study, Dogra, Basu, and Das (2011) used the MLQ (Steger & Shin, 2010) to measure presence and search for meaning in life among college students in Kolkata. They illustrated how meaning in life enhanced psychological well-being. When college students perceive meaning in life, they might be more likely to select and pursue goals as well as identify positive aspects in negative situations.

Spirituality

Spiritual experiences are described as individual perceptions of transcendence such as God and the divine, as well as perceptions of interaction with transcendence in daily experiences (Fetzer Institute/National Institute on Aging Working Group, 1999). One of the most widely used measures of spiritual experiences is the Daily Spiritual Experiences Scale (DSES) by Underwood (2006). This scale measures experiential and emotional feeling in daily life compared with cognitive thought processes of particular beliefs (Underwood, 2006). Spirituality has been associated with improved quality of life among people with cancer (Brady, Peterman, Fitchett, Mo, & Cella, 1999). For example, Ashing-Giwa, Padilla, Bohorquez, Tejero, and Garcia (2006) used qualitative interviews to discover breast cancer experiences of Latina women. One focus of this study related to factors that contributed to recovery and coping. In order to cope with the aforementioned concerns, Latina women used spirituality and other coping responses (e.g., optimism) in their recovery (Ashing-Giwa et al., 2006). Although researchers found that spirituality played an important role among Latinas with breast cancer, there is less conclusive evidence with highly successful Latina/o college students and adults. Cavazos, Johnson, and Sparrow (2010) interviewed Latina/o college students about coping responses that helped them overcome personal and academic challenges to postsecondary education. Among the most frequently reported coping responses were family support, using low expectations as motivation to persevere, acceptance, and self-reflection. Cavazos et al. used open-ended interviews to discover Latina/o students’ coping responses to persevere and succeed in postsecondary education. In another study, Lerma (2010) interviewed highly successful Latina/o individuals (i.e., PhD in counselor education) to discover their lived experiences and resilient qualities. She identified a number of important themes, including family support, ethnic identity, resilience, and intrinsic motivation. Although spirituality was not the focal point of the current study, Lerma was surprised that spirituality was not identified as a common resilient response among these highly successful Latina/o counselor educators. The findings on spirituality, positive psychological functioning, and academic outcomes among Latina/o students have not yet been examined given the methodological approaches in the aforementioned studies.

Parental Influence on Education

It is well documented that Latina/o parents want their children to become academically successful and pursue postsecondary education (Cavazos et al., 2009; Ojeda & Flores, 2008). In addition to parents’ educational aspirations, several studies analyzed the impact of parents’ educational levels on Latina/o students. Ojeda and Flores (2008) examined the influence of a number of factors, including parents’ educational levels, on Mexican American high school students’ educational aspirations. While parents’ educational levels did not have a unique impact, parents’ educational level contributed to the overall prediction of educational aspirations. Ojeda and Flores speculated that students might use parents’ low educational attainment as motivation to pursue postsecondary education. This finding is consistent with Cavazos et al. (2010) who found several Latina/o students used parents’ low-income jobs as motivation to work harder, stay in school, and pursue postsecondary education. Although researchers investigated Latina/o parents’ educational goals for their children, less attention has been given to the influence of parents’ educational levels on Latina/o students’ positive psychological functioning. It is important to examine how parents’ level of education impacts Latina/o students’ hope and academic performance.

Generation Status

One of the most salient variables on Latina/o students’ educational experiences, academic outcomes, and positive psychological function might be generation status (Alvarado & Ricard, 2013). Generation status refers to students’ and families’ country of origin and connection to the United States. For example, first generation refers to individuals who were born in Mexico while fifth generation refers to individuals who were born in the United States, whose parents were born in the United States, and whose grandparents were born in the United States (Cuellar, Arnold, & Maldonado, 1995). The impact of generational status on Latina/o students’ educational experiences and academic outcomes has received attention. Researchers (Hurtado-Ortiz & Gauvain, 2007; Rodriguez, 2002) found that first- or second-generation Mexican American students reported higher grades, years of schooling, and increased levels of motivation compared with students from higher generations. Other researchers (Portes & Rumbaut, 2001) also found that early generation Latina/o students had increased diligence and expectations toward schoolwork compared with their later generation counterparts. However, it is worth noting that there are contradictory findings in the literature with Aguayo et al.’s (2011) finding that higher generation status contributed to higher academic performance and college self-efficacy among Mexican American college students.

In summary, the current study used a positive psychology and familial framework to understand Latina/o students’ goal-specific hope and academic outcomes. Based on previous research, it appears likely that presence of meaning in life, search for meaning in life, spirituality, parents’ educational levels, and generation status have potential to influence hope among Latina/o students. We also contend that positive psychology and familial factors have potential to influence Latina/o students’ academic outcomes.

Hope

An important outcome variable in positive psychology is hope due to the relationship with academic performance (Snyder et al., 2002), goal attainment (Feldman et al., 2009), future academic achievement, and mental health (Marques et al., 2011). Hope theory as proposed by Snyder et al. (1991) involves two components: pathways and agency. First, pathways thinking refer to individuals’ plans to pursue desired objectives as well as perceived beliefs to pursue these objectives (Feldman & Dreher, 2012). Second, agency thinking refers to “thoughts that people have regarding their ability to begin and continue movement on selected pathways toward those goals” (Snyder, Michael, & Cheavens, 1999, p. 180). Researchers found a positive relationship between hope and higher course grades, better graduation rates, and enhanced athletic performance (Curry, Snyder, Cook, Ruby, & Rehm, 1997; Snyder et al., 2002). Compared with students with low-hope, high-hope students achieved self-selected goals more often (Feldman et al., 2009). In addition, there is a negative relationship between hope and depression and anxiety (Feldman & Snyder, 2005). Given the relationship among hope, academic performance, and positive psychological functioning, it is important to understand how positive psychology and familial factors contribute to goal-specific hope among Latina/o college students. It is also important to understand how goal-specific hope contributes to Latina/o college students’ academic outcomes.

The current study addresses calls for future research by Dunn and O’Brien (2009) who recommended further investigation on underrepresented populations in psychology and counseling. The current study also addresses calls for future research on contributing factors to Latina/o students’ positive psychological functioning (Alvarado & Ricard, 2013). To the best of our knowledge, only a few studies used positive psychology constructs to understand Latina/o students’ positive psychology functioning. Researchers found strong predictors of Latina/o college students’ educational attainment and educational aspirations. Namely, parent education and generation status are correlated with the aforementioned Latina/o educational outcomes. Given the call to study Latina/o students’ strengths and positive psychological functioning, the purpose of the current study is to explore goal-specific hope among Latina/o students. Prior studies among non-Latina/o populations found that hope predicts academic performance (Snyder et al., 2002) and goal attainment (Feldman et al., 2009). Given these findings, this study explores the role of familial and positive psychology factors on Latina/o students’ goal-specific hope. In addition, this study sought to explore how familial and positive psychology factors impact academic outcomes such as college performance.

Method

Participants

The lead researcher identified large undergraduate courses (e.g., Kinesiology and Educational Psychology) to recruit participants for the current study. One hundred sixty-six students enrolled at a HSI provided data. All participants in the current study were enrolled in a required undergraduate course for education majors. This sample included 66 men (40%) and 100 women (60%) with an average age of 23.95 years (SD = 7.73) who self-identified as being of Hispanic, Mexican, or Mexican American ethnic identities. Among participants, 77 self-identified as Latina/o or Hispanic (46%), 57 described themselves as Mexican American (34%), with 32 indicating a Mexican ethnic identity (19%). Related to generation status, participants identified the following from a checklist: first generation (n = 31; 19%), second generation (n = 92; 55%), third generation (n = 10; 6%), fourth generation (n = 21; 13%), and fifth generation (n = 12; 7%). Generation 1 refers to individuals who were born in Mexico. Generation 2 refers to individuals who were born in the United States and who have a parent born in Mexico. Generation 3 refers to individuals who were born in the United States, whose parents were born in the United States, and whose grandparents were born in Mexico or another country. Generation 4 refers to individuals who were born in the United States, whose parents were born in the United States, and who had one grandparent born in Mexico or another country. Generation 5 refers to individuals who were born in the United States, whose parents were born in the United States, and whose grandparents were born in the United States (Cuellar et al., 1995; Vela-Gude et al., 2009). Finally, students’ self-reported grade point averages (GPAs) on a 4.0 scale were categorized as follows: below 1.99 (n = 12; 7%), 2.0 to 2.49 (n = 18; 11%), 2.5 to 2.99 (n = 58; 35%), 3.0 to 3.59 (n = 63; 38%), and 3.6 to 4.0 (n = 15; 9%).

Measurement

All participants were given a survey packet that included a demographic form, MLQ (Steger et al., 2006), DSES (Underwood, 2006), Goal-Specific Hope Scale (GSHS; Feldman et al., 2009), and information regarding Institutional Review Board (IRB) approval. We created a demographic form to gather information on participants’ age, ethnic background, gender, GPA, academic aspirations, and generation status.

MLQ

The MLQ (Steger et al., 2006) is a self-report inventory to measure students’ or adults’ search for and presence of meaning in life. All participants responded to statements evaluated on a 7-point Likert-type scale ranging from absolutely untrue (1) to absolutely true (7). The MLQ is divided into two subscales: Search for Meaning in Life and Presence of Meaning in Life (Steger et al., 2006). A sample item for the Search subscale includes, “I am always looking to find my life’s purpose.” A sample item for the Presence subscale includes, “I understand my life’s meaning.” Reliability coefficients for scores on the total scale and subscales were measured in previous samples using coefficient alpha. Dunn and O’Brien (2009) found reliability coefficients of .90 for the Search subscale and .70 for the Presence subscale. Reliability of the total score on the MLQ in the present sample was .72. Reliability coefficients in the present sample for scores on each subscale were strong: Search (α = .91) and Presence (α = .77).

DSES

The DSES is a self-report inventory to measure students’ or adults’ daily spiritual experiences (Underwood, 2006). All participants responded to 15 statements evaluated on a 6-point Likert-type scale ranging from never (1) to many times a day (6). Participants responded to survey items about daily spiritual experiences, including how often they feel God’s presence. All items were coded so that higher scores reflected higher daily spiritual experiences (Ellison & Fan, 2008). Reliability coefficients for scores on the DSES were measured in previous samples using coefficient alpha. Underwood and Teresi (2002) found reliability coefficients of .94 and .95, respectively. Ellison and Fan (2008) found a reliability coefficient of .96 in a study with U.S. adults. Reliability of the total DSES score in the current study was strong (α = .95).

GSHS

The GSHS is a self-report inventory to measure students’ hope for a specific goal (Feldman et al., 2009). All participants responded to statements evaluated on an 8-point Likert-type scale ranging from definitely true (8) to definitely false (1). Sample items include, “I energetically pursue this goal” and “I can think of many ways to achieve this goal.” Possible scores range from 6 to 48. Reliability coefficients for scores on the total scale were measured in previous samples using coefficient alpha. Feldman et al. (2009) reported reliability coefficients ranging from .76 to .85 among college students; a reliability coefficient for our sample was a modest .59. A principal components analysis of scale items detected that one of the six items (Item 3) was problematic and was removed from the total score computation, yielding a reliability coefficient for data in the very good range (α = .85).

Procedure

We implemented several steps to gather data in the current study. First, we obtained permission from the IRB at a university in the central Southern region of the United States. Second, we informed participants that participation was voluntary and participation would not affect their grade or affiliation with the university. We obtained informed consent from all participants in the current study. Next, we distributed a packet to participants that included a demographic form, MLQ, DSES, and GSHS. Finally, scores from all data were compiled, entered into a data management software program, and scores among scales were computed.

Data Analysis

Statistical power analysis

An a priori power analysis was conducted using G*Power 3 statistical power analysis program (Faul, Erdfelder, Lang, & Buchner, 2007) to identify the number of participants needed to establish statistical power for this research design at the .80 level given α = .05. The power analysis revealed that a sample size of 55 was necessary to detect a moderate effect of predictor variables for estimating change among the criterion variable. Our sample of 166 participants is regarded as sufficient to explain relationships between predictor and criterion variables.

Preliminary analyses

We assessed for multicollinearity among predictor variables by evaluating bivariate correlations and variance inflation factors. The presence of high intercorrelations between predictor variables may suggest a confounded and unstable predictive model (Stevens, 2009). This analysis indicated low intercorrelations among predictor and criterion variables, thus justifying use of the scales within a single regression model.

Primary analysis

A simultaneous multiple regression model was computed to evaluate research questions related to the degree that generational status, parent education, and variables related to meaning and spirituality were predictive of goal-specific hope. In this model, the six predictor variables (generational status, highest level of parents’ education, search for meaning, presence of meaning, and spirituality) were regressed onto the GSHS criterion variable. Regression coefficients and metrics of practice significance were inspected.

We conducted a discriminate analysis to evaluate research questions related to the degree that familial factors and positive psychology variables were predictive of participants’ GPA. We selected a discriminate analysis strategy rather than linear or binominal regression modeling based on the presence of multiple levels of categorical data related to academic GPA. Canonical correlation coefficients and centroid means were inspected.

Results

The regression analysis yielded a statistically significant model, F(6, 165) = 5.89, p< .01, R² = .18, indicative of a medium effect size (see Table 1). Among categorical variables, mothers’ highest level of education was positively related to reported degree of goal-specific hope (β = .16, p = .05, sr² = .15), indicative of a medium effect size accounting for approximately 15% of variance within the model. Non-significant findings were detected for fathers’ highest level of education (β = .01, p = .95, sr² = .04) and generational status (β = .16, p = .52, sr² = .05), resulting in a small effect size.

Table 1.

Multiple Regression Results for Goal-Specific Hope.

Variable	B	SE B	β	t	sr ²	F	R ²
Goal-specific hope						5.89**	.18
Generation status	.21	.33	0.04	0.63	.05
Mother education	.44	.23	0.16	1.93*	.15
Father education	.01	.20	0.01	0.06	.01
Search for meaning	−.53	.14	−0.97	−3.77**	.28
Presence of meaning	.69	.16	1.15	4.38**	.32
Spirituality	.04	.02	0.16	2.20*	.17

Significant at the .05 level. **Significant at the .01 level.

Among the variables for meaning and spirituality, search for meaning was negatively correlated with scores on the GSHS (β = −.97, p< .01, sr² = .28), indicative of a large effect size accounting for approximately 28% of the variance within the model. A statistical significant finding was also detected for a positive relationship between perceptions related to presence of meaning and scores on the GSHS (β = 1.15, p< .01, sr² = .32), indicative of a very large effect size accounting for approximately 32% of the variance within the model. Finally, statistically significant findings were yielded for a positive association between participant perceptions of spirituality and scores on the GSHS (β = .16, p = .02, sr² = .17), indicative of a medium effect size accounting for approximately 17% of the variance within the model.

The discriminant analysis did not yield a significant model, Wilks’s λ = .87, χ²(28) = 21.98, p = .78, indicating the values associated with the predictor variables did not account for a meaningful changes within the canonical model. Inspection of centroid means indicated that none of the familial or positive psychology variables were associated with overall reported GPA.

Discussion

The growth of the Latina/o population and the dearth of quantitative studies regarding the influence of factors on positive psychological functioning among Latina/o college students prompted the current study. We examined the extent to which positive psychology and familial factors influenced Latina/o college students’ hope and academic performance.

Daily spiritual experiences served as a positive predictor of goal-specific hope among Latina/o college students. Despite mixed findings regarding the role of spiritual experiences on Latina/o students’ academic achievement (Cavazos et al., 2010; Lerma, 2010), this finding suggests that as the amount of spiritual experiences increases, the level of goal-specific hope increases. It is important to note that this is one of the first quantitative studies to examine the impact of spiritual experiences on Latina/o college students’ goal-specific hope or positive psychological functioning. Additionally, presence of meaning in life served as a positive predictor of goal-specific hope among Latina/o college students. This finding suggests that as the amount of meaning in life increases, the level of goal-specific hope increases. This finding is important given the relationship among meaning in life, optimism, hope, perceived health, and self-esteem (Steger & Shin, 2010). Gabriele (2008) noted, “Adolescents who believe that life has a purpose and that what they can accomplish matters to society may find it easier to set goals for their future . . . ” (p. 97). We contend that counselors and psychologists can help Latina/o college students increase perceptions of meaning life, thereby possibly influencing goal-specific hope (Steger & Shin, 2010). Finally, search for meaning in life had a negative relationship with goal-specific hope in the current study. This finding suggests that Latina/o students who search for meaning and purpose in life might have less goal-specific hope compared with students who perceive meaning in life. Based on Marcia’s (1966) identity statuses, participants in the current study might be in crisis. More specifically, Latina/o college students who search for meaning in life might experience identity moratorium in which they explore various commitments.

The influence of parent’s educational levels and generation status were also used as part of a conceptual framework to understand Latina/o students’ hope. This is one of the first studies to investigate familial factors in the prediction of hope among Latina/o students. In the current study, only mother’s educational level contributed to the overall prediction of goal-specific hope. This finding is inconsistent with previous studies (Ojeda & Flores, 2008) that found parents’ education level did not uniquely predict Mexican American high school students’ educational aspirations. Given that the majority of our sample were women, it is possible that participants used mothers’ education levels as motivation to persevere and identify hope in negative situations (Castro, Garcia, Cavazos, & Castro, 2011; Cavazos et al., 2010). In addition, generation status did not contribute to the overall prediction of goal-specific hope among Latina/o college students in the current study. While researchers found generation status contributed to differences in educational attainment or educational aspirations (Ojeda & Flores, 2008), this is one of the first investigations to highlight a lack of a relationship between generation status and positive psychological functioning. Future studies should continue to examine generation status and other familial factors (e.g., ethnic identity and cultural values) on Latina/o students’ psychological functioning.

Researchers found a relationship among positive psychological functioning, academic achievement, and educational goals (Gabriele, 2008; Lyubomirsky, Sheldon, & Schkade, 2005; Marques et al., 2011). In the current study, we did not find any relationship between goal-specific hope and Latina/o college students’ self-reported academic performance. There are several possibilities for this finding. First, there might be other personality and culture characteristics that are related to Latina/o college students’ academic performance. Aguayo et al. (2011) found that enculturation to the Mexican culture and immigrant status was related to Mexican American college students’ college performance. Among Latina/o students, family support (Cavazos et al., 2010) might also be an important predictor of academic success beyond individual qualities such as goal-specific hope. Second, it appears important for future researchers to examine other measures of academic success. Possible factors include college self-efficacy (Aguayo et al., 2011), psychological grit (Duckworth & Quinn, 2009), and college persistent decisions (Ojeda et al., 2014). In the context of previous research and findings from the current study, there are other factors that might contribute to the academic performance as well as predictors of college performance among Latina/o college students that should be explored in future research. Finally, it might be important for researchers to use a general measure of hope to examine the relationship with academic performance. Many students in the current study included specific goals that were not related to GPA (e.g., career and personal goals). Perhaps there is a positive relationship between goal-specific hope related to GPA and actual GPA.

There are other directions for future research. First, outcome-based research with Latina/o college students is warranted. Researchers must continue to develop and test interventions to increase Latina/o students’ goal-specific hope and presence of meaning in life. Possible interventions include narrative therapy (Cavazos, Holt, & Flamez, 2012) and positive psychology (Seligman, 2002). Narrative therapy can help Latina/o students find meaning in life by identifying unique outcomes, mapping the influence of problems, externalizing conversations, and re-authoring stories (White & Epston, 1990). We agree with Cavazos et al. (2012) who speculated that narrative therapy can help Latina/o students re-author their life stories and identify hope for their academic futures. Second, future investigations could benefit from an ecological framework in order to examine how individual, interpersonal, and institutional factors impact Latina/o students’ positive psychological functioning (Brofenbrenner, 1994; Byrd & McKinney, 2012). Future research can examine how individual, interpersonal, and institutional factors impact Latina/o students’ subjective happiness, hope, meaning in life, and other factors related to positive psychological functioning. For example, it is important to examine institutional factors unique to Latina/o students, including campus climate, mentoring, and campus satisfaction. For studies involving Latina/o high school students, important institutional factors include access to advanced placement coursework and perceptions of a college culture. Finally, longitudinal studies are necessary to determine when and how relationships among factors and positive psychological functioning emerge. Researchers can follow students over time and examine how specific factors emerge and influence Latina/o students’ positive psychological functioning.

There are several limitations that must be taken into consideration. First, we did not address cause and effect or assess why relationships were found. This study relied on a correlation, predictive design with cross-sectional data. Second, we relied on self-report data to examine perceptions of positive psychology constructs. Some college students may provide socially desirable responses or may not have sufficient insight to understand their feelings or perceptions (Alvarado & Ricard, 2013; Zalaquett, 2006). Third, we did not use random sampling in the current study. Fourth, the homogeneity of the sample and university population might affect generalizability (Watson, 2009). All participants in this study attended a HSI with over 90% Hispanic population. Although we only included students who identified as Hispanic, Mexican, Latina/o, or Mexican American, results could serve as a framework for researchers to study other Latina/o sub-populations (e.g., Puerto Ricans). Finally, the sample represented a successful group of Latina/o college students as representative by college enrollment. Future researchers can examine positive psychological functioning among Latina/o high school students.

Footnotes

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The authors declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The authors received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Author Biographies

Javier Cavazos Vela, PhD, is an assistant professor in the guidance and counseling program at The University of Texas at Brownsville. He obtained a doctorate in counselor education from Texas A&M University–Corpus Christi. His research interests include Latina/o students’ coping responses, educational experiences, and mental health.

Eunice Lerma, PhD, is an assistant professor in the guidance and counseling program at The University of Texas at Brownsville. She obtained a doctorate in counselor education from Texas A&M University–Corpus Christi. Her current research interests include prevention of gang membership in school settings, implementing dialectical behavior therapy in school settings, and prevention programs with at-risk and adjudicated youth.

A. Stephen Lenz, PhD, is a licensed professional counselor (LPC) in Texas and Tennessee who specializes in the treatment of children, adolescents, and families in community-based and university counseling settings. His research interests include community-based program evaluation, counseling outcome research, single-case research, instrument translation/development, and holistic approaches to counseling, counselor education, and supervision.

Karina Hinojosa is currently a graduate student in the guidance and counseling program at The University of Texas at Brownsville. She completed her bachelor’s degree in psychology from The University of Texas at Brownsville. Her current research interests include multicultural issues in counseling, Hispanic students’ self-efficacy, and domestic violence survivors’ career decision-making process.

Omar Hernandez-Duque, M.Ed., is a graduate of the Guidance and Counseling Master’s program at The University of Texas at Brownsville. He currently provides counseling services to immigrant youth as a clinician with Southwest. He focseson addressing gaps in services regarding Veteran issues by active involvement in veteran organizations and coalitions. His current research interests include Hispanic students’ self-efficacy, veteran registration issues, and immigrant youth.

Stacey L. Gonzalez is an alumnus of Texas A&M University–Kingsville where she received a bachelor’s degree in Interdisciplinary Studies. She is a secondary English Language Arts (ELA) teacher in South Texas, and she is also a graduate student in the Counseling and Guidance program at The University of Texas at Brownsville. Her research interests include positive psychology, Latina/o spirituality and religion, Latino millennials, and multicultural counseling. During her free time, she enjoys reading, running, and playing soccer.

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