Gender Differences in Physical Activity and Related Beliefs Among Hispanic College Students

Abstract

This study investigated gender differences in physical activity (PA) and social-cognitive theory (SCT) variables among Hispanics. Students (N = 298) completed measures assessing levels of PA and variables derived from SCT. Men reported greater PA than women. Men also reported having greater self-efficacy for PA, greater perceived ability to set Goals and make Plans for PA, and greater Expectancies that PA would produce psychological effects (e.g., reduced stress), improve their body image, and enhance their competitive ability. In addition, gender moderated associations between SCT variables and PA behaviors such that self-efficacy and self-regulation were the best predictors of PA among women (β = .18, β = .24, respectively), but body image was the strongest predictor of PA among men (β = .15). The results are discussed in the context of promoting PA in this population.

Keywords

physical activity social-cognitive theory Hispanics college students gender differences

The American College of Sports Medicine (ACSM) recommends at least 30 minutes of moderate-intensity cardiorespiratory exercise (e.g., walking) 5 days per week or 20 minutes of vigorous-intensity cardiorespiratory exercise (e.g., running) 3 days per week, or a combination of moderate- and vigorous-intensity exercise which will produce a total energy expenditure of 500 to 1,000 metabolic equivalent (MET) minutes per week in order to help adults maintain healthy lifestyle (ACSM, 2011).

The consistent relationship between regular physical activity (PA) and disease has made lack of PA a major public health concern (Bautista, Reininger, Gay, Barroso, & McCormick, 2011; Djordjevic-Nikic, Dopsaj, & Veskovic, 2013; Ickes & Sharma, 2012; Petosa, Suminski, & Hortz, 2003). It has been shown that regular participation in PA helps metabolism and immune function, and minimizes risk factors for heart disease, diabetes, high blood pressure, and certain cancers. PA is also associated with decreased risk of morbidity and mortality rates from cardiovascular disease (Bautista et al., 2011; Ickes & Sharma, 2012; Keating, Guan, Pinero, & Bridges, 2005; Kujala, Kaprio, Sarna, & Koskenvuo, 1998).

Despite numerous health benefits, most adults are not sufficiently physically active (Djordjevic-Nikic et al., 2013; Ickes & Sharma, 2012). Studies show that only about 20% of Americans meet the PA recommendations, while about 30% report not being physically active at all (Ickes & Sharma, 2012; U.S. Department of Health and Human Services [USDHHS], 2015). This is also true for college students with studies showing surprisingly low participation in PA, ranging from 40% to 50% (Keating et al., 2005; Petosa et al., 2003; Suminski, Petosa, Utter, & Zhang, 2002). This trend among college students is troubling because studies have shown that PA decreases over the life span (Djordjevic-Nikic et al., 2013). For example, approximately 65% of high school students engage in vigorous PA, compared with 32% of 18- to 24-year-olds and 23% of adults. A very similar trend has been reported for moderate PA showing that approximately 27% of high school students engage in moderate PA, compared with 17% of 18- to 24-year-olds and 15% of adults (Rovniak, Eileen, & Winett, 2002; USDHHS, 2015).

Research shows that participation in PA is higher among White adolescents compared with Blacks or Hispanics (Ickes & Sharma, 2012). Also, more White adults meet current recommendations for PA than do Black or Hispanic adults (Ickes & Sharma, 2012). Indeed, Hispanics are one of the most inactive groups in the nation with about 37% reporting no leisure time PA. Among Hispanic women, 74% report no PA. The percentages for women are striking as Hispanic women have particularly high risk of diabetes (2 to 3 times greater than non-Hispanic Whites) and heart disease mortality (40% greater than non-Hispanic Whites). In addition, Hispanics are more likely than non-Hispanics to die from diabetes (41%), stroke (18%), and chronic liver disease (62%; Ickes & Sharma, 2012). In a study among a predominantly Hispanic college population, Magoc and Tomaka (2006) reported that even though participation in some level of PA among college students (the majority Hispanic) was high (61%), less than ½ of the physically active met the ACSM recommendations for PA. The results also showed that the rates of overweight and obesity were high, with 41% of the sample being overweight, including 13% classified as obese.

SCT Constructs as Predictors of PA

Social-cognitive theory (SCT; Bandura, 1997) has been one of the most widely used behavioral change theories, and its constructs provide a useful framework for the prediction of PA behavior and the design of behavioral interventions. Central SCT concepts include self-efficacy, outcome expectancies, self-regulation, and social support. Self-efficacy reflects the idea that in order to act, an individual needs to feel confident in his or her ability to perform a certain behavior (Bandura, 2004).

A central tenant of SCT is that people adopt actions that are likely to produce positive outcomes and avoid actions that are likely to produce negative outcomes (Bandura, 2004). Bandura’s concept of outcome expectancies captures this notion, incorporating both the expectation of an outcome and its subjective value to the individual. Self-regulation refers to individual motivational and self-regulatory skills (Bandura, 2004). Self-regulation allows a person to set goals, monitor progress, and evaluate his or her capabilities to perform behaviors in given situations, which increases motivation and persistence of goal-directed behaviors. Finally, social support represents a form of verbal or behavioral actions from friends and family in support of a given behavior (Bandura, 2004).

Studies, conducted largely on non-Hispanic samples, have generally found positive relations between SCT variables and PA (Petosa et al., 2003; Rovniak et al., 2002; Wallace, Buckworth, Kirby, & Sherman, 2000). However, these studies have been conducted at universities with limited ethnic diversity. As such, it is uncertain whether the results generalize to other ethnic groups. Thus, the overall aim of this study was to examine levels of PA and SCT concepts among Hispanics and possible gender differences in both (PA and SCT).

Method

Participants and Setting

The participants in this study were 366 part- or full-time currently enrolled male and female students 18 to 40 years of age from a large southwestern university with a large Hispanic enrollment. All participants were recruited through classroom settings. Because this study focused on the health beliefs and behaviors of Hispanics, we analyzed only data from the 298 students who self-identified as Hispanic, primarily of Mexican heritage.

Measures

Demographic variables included self-reported gender, age, ethnicity, height, weight, and student full-/part-time status.

International Physical Activity Questionnaire (short version; Booth, 2000) assessed moderate and vigorous leisure time PA.

Exercise Goal-Setting Scale (EGS) and Exercise Planning and Scheduling Scale (EPS) assessed students’ self-regulation in regard to PA. Rovniak et al. (2002) showed good reliabilities for these scales in a predominantly White student population (.89 and .87, respectively). In the present sample, we also found good reliabilities for these scales (.92 and .76, respectively).

Family and Friend Support for Exercise Habits Scales (Sallis, Grossman, Pinski, Patterson, & Nader, 1987) assessed social support during the past 3 months that students received from friends and family members. Petosa et al. (2003) showed good reliabilities for these scales in a predominantly White college population (.61 and .91, respectively). In the present sample, we also found good reliabilities for these scales (.89 and .90, respectively).

Self-Efficacy for Exercise Behavior Scale (Sallis, Pinski, Grossman, Patterson, & Nader, 1988) assessed students’ self-efficacy in regard to PA. Petosa et al. (2003) showed good reliability for this scale in a predominantly White college population (.97). In the present sample, we also found good reliability for this scale (.91).

Outcome Expectations and Expectancies Scale (Steinhardt & Dishman, 1989) assessed students’ outcome expectations and expectancies in regard to PA. Petosa et al. (2003) showed good reliability for this scale in a predominantly White college population (.74). In the present sample, we factor analyzed this scale to examine different sources of expectancies. Specifically, principal axis factoring with oblimin rotation to simple solution revealed three expectancy factors: Psychological Effects, Image, and Competition. Eight items loaded on the psychological effects factor and all reflected the expectancy that PA would reduce stress, increase energy, or improve mood; a subscale based on these items showed good internal consistency (.89). Five items loaded on the image factor and all reflected the expectancy that PA would enhance attractiveness or improve body image; a subscale based on these items showed good internal consistency (.78). Finally, six items loaded on the competition factor and all reflected the expectancy that PA would enhance competitive performance; a subscale based on these items showed good internal consistency (.87).

Procedures

Participants for this study were recruited through regular classroom meetings. After signing the informed consent, study participants completed a 20-minute questionnaire.

Results

Descriptive and Preliminary Analysis

Demographics and descriptive statistics

Demographic data for the sample (n = 298) is presented in Table 1. As shown, the average age of the sample was 24 years with primarily junior- and senior-level students. A slightly higher percentage of women (66%) participated in the study than men. The sample had an average BMI of 26 (kg/m²). Men were significantly taller (Ms = 69.97 and 63.77, respectively) and heavier (Ms = 181.38 and 147.78, respectively) than women. On average, students reported being physically active about 2 times per week at vigorous intensity, spending 217 minutes engaged in PA per week, and about the same time per week engaged in PA at moderate intensity (i.e., 2 days and 232 minutes per week).

Table 1.

Descriptive Statistics for Study Variables.

	M (SD)/%	Men	Women	F or χ²
	M (SD)/%	M (SD)/%(n = 99)	M (SD)/%(n = 199)	F or χ²
Age	24.38 (6.11)	25.03 (7.60)	24.14 (5.51)	0.54
Class	3.39 (0.74)	3.36 (0.77)	3.40 (0.72)	0.28
Height (in.)	65.88 (4.67)	70.00 (2.67)	63.77 (4.03)	190.61***
Weight (lbs)	158.97 (36.92)	181.81 (29.83)	147.78 (34.91)	66.47***
BMI	26.14 (8.22)	26.14 (4.06)	26.14 (9.65)	0.00
Vigorous days of PA (per week)	2.30 (1.75)	2.93 (1.49)	1.99 (1.79)	20.30***
Moderate days of PA (per week)	2.52 (1.95)	2.89 (1.87)	2.33 (1.97)	5.39*
Vigorous minutes per week)	217.34 (254.54)	335.09 (300.64)	158.75 (205.11)	35.40***
Moderate minutes (per week)	232.85 (337.60)	302.81 (366.57)	198.23 (317.59)	6.40*

Self-rated physical health (1 = excellent, 5 = very poor)	2.35 (.78)	2.24 (.73)	2.40 (.80)	2.60
Self-rated psychological health (1 = excellent, 5 = very poor)	2.18 (.82)	2.15 (.82)	2.19 (.82)	0.15
Self-rated diet (1 = excellent; 5 = very poor)	2.88 (.80)	2.99 (.71)	2.82 (.84)	2.86

Note. BMI = body mass index; PA = physical activity.

p < .05. ***p < .001.

Men and women significantly differed on all four PA variables: Vigorous Days (F(1, 296) = 20.30, p < .001), Moderate Days (F(1, 294) = 5.39, p < .05), Vigorous Minutes (F(1, 296) = 35.40, p < .001), and Moderate Minutes (F(1, 294) = 6.40, p < .05). Men were significantly more physically active per week than women: For vigorous days (Ms = 2.93 and 1.99, respectively), for moderate days (Ms = 2.89 and 2.33, respectively), for vigorous minutes (Ms = 335.09 and 158.75, respectively), and for moderate minutes (Ms = 302.81 and 198.23, respectively). In addition, a majority of students self-rated their physical health as being “fair” to “good,” psychological health as being “good,” and diet as being “fair.”

The study also examined participation in the recommended levels of PA using definitions from ACSM (2011). Less than half of this sample of college students was sufficiently physically active and nearly 1 in 10 was inactive. Moreover, these proportions differed for men and women (χ² = 25.67, p < .001) with men being significantly more sufficiently active than women (65.3% and 35.8%, respectively). Indeed, more than 60% of women were not meeting the recommendations for PA with more than 1 in 10 being completely inactive.

Table 2 shows means and standard deviations for main SCT variables as well as comparisons by gender. As shown, men and women significantly differed in their PA beliefs on several SCT variables with men having significantly greater Self-Efficacy for PA than women (F(1, 297) = 14.33, p < .001), greater ability to set goals and plans for PA (F(1, 297) = 20.50, p < .001 and F(1, 297) = 9.17, p < .01; respectively), and greater Expectancies that PA would produce psychological effects (e.g., reduced stress), improve their body image, and enhance their competitive ability (F(1, 292) = 16.48, p < .001, F(1, 292) = 10.15, p < .01, and F(1, 292) = 28.46, p < .001; respectively). Men had significantly greater self-efficacy for PA than women (Ms = 44.99 and 40.51, respectively). Similarly, men reported greater ability to set goals (Ms = 33.36 and 28.39, respectively) and make plans (Ms = 28.97 and 26.15, respectively) for PA than women. Men had greater expectancies than women that PA would produce psychological effects (e.g., reduced stress; Ms = 82.83 and 69.87, respectively), improve their body image (Ms = 56.62 and 50.45, respectively), and enhance their competitive ability (Ms = 41.74 and 28.59, respectively).

Table 2.

Social-Cognitive Theory Variables.

	M (SD)	Men	Women	F
	M (SD)	M (SD)	M (SD)	F
Self-efficacy	42.01 (9.83)	44.99 (8.84)	40.51 (9.98)	14.33***
Social support	51.26 (16.35)	49.98 (16.62)	51.90 (16.22)	0.91
Psychological expectancy	74.25 (26.55)	82.83 (24.01)	69.87 (26.77)	16.48***
Competition expectancy	33.03 (20.87)	41.74 (22.63)	28.59 (18.45)	28.46***
Image expectancy	52.53 (15.92)	56.62 (14.82)	50.45 (16.09)	10.15**
Self-regulation (goals)	30.04 (9.22)	33.36 (8.14)	28.39 (9.31)	20.50***
Self-regulation (plans)	27.08 (7.68)	28.97 (6.67)	26.15 (7.99)	9.17**

p < .01. ***p < .001.

In addition, the study examined the number of persons who were overweight or obese, using BMI guidelines established by ACSM (ACSM, 2011). Participants with BMI of 25 to 29.9 (kg/m²) were classified overweight, those with BMI of 30 (kg/m²) or greater were classified obese, and participants with BMI between 18.5 (kg/m²) and 24.9 (kg/m²) were classified normal. In all, 51.1% of the sample was overweight, including 18.5% of those being classified as obese. Men and women did not significantly differ on BMI values, χ² = .15.

Primary Analysis: Prediction of PA

The primary analysis for this study examined demographic and SCT variables in relation to PA. The correlations between demographic and SCT variables and minutes of moderate and vigorous PA ranged from negative moderate (r = −.33) to positive moderate (r = .56) and were all statistically significant (except for BMI). The results showed that gender related negatively to most PA and SCT variables indicating that women participated less in PA, had less self-efficacy, lower self-regulation, and lower outcome expectancies. As expected, the intercorrelations among the SCT variables were moderate and all were positive. Also, the SCT variables correlated with minutes of moderate and vigorous PA in expected ways.

Hierarchical multiple regression analysis examined the multivariate relationships among minutes of moderate and vigorous PA and SCT variables. For this analysis, gender was entered into the regression equation predicting weekly minutes of PA on the first step and SCT variables having a significant univariate association were entered on the second step. The results of this analysis were significant, adjusted R² = .31, F(8, 284) = 17.49, p < .001. Results also indicated that the addition of the SCT variables added significantly to the prediction of weekly minutes of PA, ΔR² = .25, F(7, 284) = 15.05, p < 001. Examination of the standardized beta coefficients revealed that self-efficacy, self-regulation (plans), and body image were the only significant predictors of weekly PA minutes (β = .18, p < .05; β = .24, p < .05; β = .15, p < .05, respectively) with self-efficacy and self-regulation (plans) being the best predictors of PA among women, and body image being the best predictor of PA among men. Table 3 shows the standardized β coefficients separately for both vigorous and moderate minutes of PA.

Table 3.

Predictors of Vigorous and Moderate Minutes of PA.

	β	r	Semi-partial r
Vigorous minutes per weekR² = .41, F(4, 288) = 49.69, p < .001
Self Regulation plans	.36***	.55	.29
Body image	.18**	.44	.15
Self-efficacy	.13*	.48	.10
Gender	−.21***	−.33	−.20
Moderate minutes per weekR² = .11, F(3, 287) = 12.03, p < .001
Self-efficacy	.16*	.27	.14
Body image	.16*	.26	.13
Gender	−.14*	−.20	−.13

Note. PA = physical activity.

p < .05. **p < .01. ***p < .001.

Discussion

The present study examined participation in PA and the predictors of participation in both moderate and vigorous PA, using the SCT concepts, among a sample of predominantly Hispanic college students. The study also examined possible gender differences in both SCT concepts and participation in PA. Overall, the findings provide a mixed picture of participation in PA in this group, and show that some SCT concepts play a significant role in PA participation.

On the positive side, about nine out of 10 college students reported engaging in some form of PA on a weekly basis. Moreover, self-efficacy (feeling confident), self-regulation (having self-regulatory skills), and positive PA expectancies (improving body image) were potent predictors of participation in PA, accounting for nearly a third of the variance in PA participation outcomes.

On the negative side, however, only about 45% of the sample reported engaging in the recommended amount of PA by meeting the ACSM definitions for moderate and vigorous PA. Moreover, about 9% were completely sedentary (reporting zero minutes of PA per week). As habits learned early in life tend to carry on into adulthood, the results do not look promising for the future of this college population.

Magoc and Tomaka (2006) reported that even though Hispanic college students highly rate and understand the importance of being physically active, they are simply not doing it enough. A possible explanation might be that students do not have a good understanding of the minimum recommendations that could potentially produce positive overall health results. Together with the present study, one implication of this pattern of results is that efforts to increase PA need to focus on ways of increasing the frequency and duration of ongoing participation by targeting cognitive concepts that account for variance in PA participation.

The observed high rates of overweight and obesity were also in the negative column. Specifically, the results showed that rates of overweight and obesity were high in this sample with 51% of the sample being overweight, including 18.5% classified as obese. These numbers are alarming, especially considering the mean age of the sample, which was just over 24 years, and keeping in mind that self-reports tend to underestimate weight. We can only expect the percentage of overweight and obesity in this sample to increase with their age, which is a clear indicator of a need for early and effective interventions in this population.

One of the interesting things to emerge from our analyses was the lack of association between BMI and participation in PA, which might be inconsistent with other studies and common knowledge in the area. One of the main reasons for the lack of association could be the cross-sectional nature of the data, which tells us only about current participation in PA, and nothing about one’s history of PA, which could certainly contribute to weight status and BMI. We can only assume that a large percentage of our sample is currently physically active at different levels, but the question about how long they have been maintaining these levels of PA still remains uncertain.

A final concerning aspect of the data was the finding showing that women were significantly less likely than men to participate in PA. Indeed, the results showed that women report less days and minutes of both vigorous and moderate PA per week even though both genders place equally high values on PA, which is shown in PA expectancies. Gender being a strong predictor of PA is consistent with some previous studies showing that gender has a significant effect on attitude toward PA (Birtwistle & Brodie, 1991; Koca & Demirhan, 2004; Magoc & Tomaka, 2006). However, it is inconsistent with some other studies showing that male and female college students do not differ in PA (Behrens & Dinger, 2003). Our consistent gender difference might reflect how our largely Hispanic sample differs from other university samples. Indeed, several researchers have suggested that for cultural and traditional reasons, Hispanic women are not physically active, nor do they value it as much as men do (Crespo, Keteyian, Heath, & Sempos, 1996; Crespo, Smit, Carter-Pokras, & Andersen, 2001).

Our study suggests that self-efficacy, outcome expectancies, and self-regulatory skills are crucial for increasing and/or maintaining participation in PA. Encouraging PA while targeting gender-specific cognitive concepts might be of great interest for future research.

Footnotes

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Author Biographies

Dejan Magoc received his baccalaureate degree in physical education from the University of Novi Sad (Serbia; 1999), and his master’s (kinesiology; 2004) and PhD (interdisciplinary health sciences; 2009) degrees from the University of Texas at El Paso (UTEP). He served as assistant professor in the Department of Health Studies at Eastern Illinois University. In 2014, he moved to Stetson University where he is assistant professor in the Department of Integrative Health Science. He is particularly interested in determining the most important constructs from behavioral theories and applying them in helping individuals change their behaviors toward healthy behaviors/lifestyle. He is a two-time recipient of the Achievement and Contribution Award—the award recognizes an outstanding contribution to the university in the area of research.

Joe Tomaka received his baccalaureate degree from Geneseo State University (1987), and his master’s (1990) and PhD degrees (1993) in social and health psychology from the State University of New York at Buffalo. He served as assistant and associate professor at the UTEP where he served as chair of the Department of Health Promotion, associate dean for the College of Health Sciences, and director of the Interdisciplinary Health Sciences PhD Program. In 2013, he moved to New Mexico State University (NMSU) where he is professor and associate dean for research in the College of Health and Social Services.

Angelee Gigi Shamaley received her baccalaureate (business administration; 2000), master’s (health science; 2004), and PhD (interdisciplinary health sciences; 2013) degrees from the UTEP. She is adjunct assistant professor at NMSU and program director for the Southern Area Health Education Center (SoAHEC) NMSU where she currently directs activities of the center, manages senior administrative functions, and supports the organization’s strategic alliances and partnerships. Her interests include brief interventions for behavior change, stress and coping, and program evaluation.

Amber Bridges received her baccalaureate degree in health promotion with a minor in community health from the UTEP (2010). She was the recipient of a research award from the Hispanic Health Disparities Research Center, which enabled her to extend the research project focusing on physical activity. Upon completing her degree, she was honored as a 2010 Top Ten Senior. She entered the Master of Public Health Program at UTEP in the fall of 2010. While working on her graduate degree, she completed an internship with the Paso del Norte Health Foundation and worked as the coordinator for the University Wellness Program. She also worked as an evaluation assistant for Helix Solutions, a program evaluation firm. She completed her MPH in 2012.

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