Ethnic Variables and Negative Life Events as Predictors of Depressive Symptoms and Suicidal Behaviors in Latino College Students

Abstract

In the present study, we examined ethnic variables (viz., multigroup ethnic identity and other group orientation) along with negative life events as predictors of depressive symptoms and suicidal behaviors in a sample of 156 (38 male and 118 female) Latino college students. Results of conducting hierarchical regression analyses indicated that the set of ethnic variables accounted for significant variance in both depressive symptoms and suicidal behaviors. The inclusion of negative life events was found to account for significant additional variance in both outcomes, beyond what was accounted for by ethnic variables. Interestingly, beyond main effects, results indicated a significant Other Group Orientation × Negative Life Events interaction effect to account for additional variance in depressive symptoms and suicidal behaviors. Some implications of the present findings are discussed, including the potential value for Latinos to broaden their attitudes and interactions with other ethnic groups.

Keywords

Latinos ethnic variables negative life events depression suicide

According to the U.S. Census Bureau (Ennis, Ríos-Vargas, & Albert, 2011), Latinos make up 50.5 million individuals living in the United States. Despite this compelling fact, research on Latino mental health remains sparse, including research on depression and suicide risk. This is especially problematic because the lifetime prevalence of depressive disorders among Latinos is estimated to be 15.4%, and Latinos in early adulthood experience more depressive symptoms and have more chronic major depression compared with non-Latino Whites (Alegría et al., 2008; González, Tarraf, Whitfield, & Vega, 2010). In addition, suicide represents the third leading cause of death in young Latinos, and Latino students have been found to experience more suicide attempts compared with other ethnic/racial groups (Gutierrez, Rodriguez, & Garcia, 2001; Heron, 2012). Accordingly, it is troubling to find only a handful of studies that have tried to identify useful predictors of depressive symptoms and suicidal behaviors in Latinos (e.g., Gomez, Miranda, & Polanco, 2011).

In recent years, researchers have identified ethnic variables as important positive correlates, and predictors, of positive psychological outcomes in ethnic minorities (Maldonado-Molina, Reyes, & Espinosa-Hernández, 2006). In many of these studies, researchers have focused on ethnic identity as a specific important ethnic variable. Indeed, Maldonado-Molina et al. (2006) argued that ethnic identity is a valuable protective factor for Latinos. According to Phinney’s (1992) model, ethnic identity (measured by the Multigroup Ethnic Identity Measure [MEIM]) represents a multidimensional construct involving affirmation of, or commitment to, one’s ethnicity (viz., Affirmation and Belonging; “I am happy that I am a member of the group I belong to”), achievement, or exploration of ethnic identity (viz., Ethnic Identity Achievement; “I have a clear sense of my ethnic background and what it means to me”), and engagement in ethnic specific behaviors (viz., Behaviors and Practices; “I am active in organizations or social groups that include mostly members of my own ethnic group”). Notably, in a more recent study, Phinney and Ong (2007) argued that the first two dimensions (i.e., affirmation/commitment and identity achievement/exploration) and ethnic behaviors should be kept separate from identity. However, for the purpose of examining a range of ethnic variables, ethnic behaviors was retained as a predictor in the present study.

In addition, most studies of ethnic variables and in particular, ethnic identity, have focused on schemas that emerge from the self and have often neglected schemas that emerge from interacting with diverse others (e.g., “I have a good sense of who I am from interacting with others who are ethnically different from myself”). Importantly, in addition to the ethnic identity dimensions, Phinney (1992) also highlighted the importance of Other Group Orientation. Other Group Orientation measures attitudes and interactions with other ethnic groups (viz., Other Group Orientation; “I often spend time with people from ethnic groups other than my own”). Other group orientation represents a concept distinct from ethnic identity, but one that may interact with ethnic identity as part of an individual’s broader social identity. Noteworthy, some findings based on studies of Latinos have pointed to a robust positive association between an openness to diverse others, receptivo a los demás, and psychological adjustment (e.g., Carrillo, Rojo, Sánchez-Bernardos, & Avia, 2001; Santos, Ortiz, Morales, & Rosales, 2007). Accordingly, it would be important to determine whether other group orientation represents a distinct statistical predictor from the more commonly studied direct ethnic identity predictors (viz., affirmation, ethnic identity achievement, and ethnic behaviors) of depressive symptoms and suicidal behaviors in Latinos. However, beyond an examination of ethnic identity and related variables, it may also be useful to determine the extent to which other factors may add to, or even interact with, ethnic variables to account for negative psychological outcomes in Latinos.

Findings from more than half a century of research have highlighted a reliable, positive association involving negative life events with depressive symptoms and suicidal experiences (e.g., Havens, 1957; Kessler, 1997). However, most of these studies have been based on samples composed of Caucasians or European Americans. Conspicuously, only a handful of studies have been conducted examining the importance of negative life events as a predictor of psychological adjustment in Latinos (e.g., Reyes-Rodríguez, Rivera-Medina, Cámara-Fuentes, Suárez-Torres, & Bernal, 2013) despite the fact that Latinos are disproportionately affected by negative life events (e.g., poverty; Ramirez & de la Cruz, 2002). Although findings have been promising in also showing a reliable positive association between negative life events and maladjustment, no study to date has examined the predictive utility of negative life events, beyond ethnic variables (i.e., multigroup ethnic identity and other group orientation), to predict depressive symptoms and suicidal behaviors in Latinos. This gap in the literature is important to fill in order to allow for a better understanding of how negative life events are involved with maladjustment beyond potentially significant variance accounted for by ethnic variables. In addition, because findings from some studies have indicated that negative life events may sometimes interact with important individual differences variables in predicting psychological outcomes (e.g., Schmidt & Joiner, 2004), and because researchers have also argued that ethnic variables are important to examine as potential modifiers (Maldonado-Molina et al., 2006), it would be useful to examine whether negative life events not only add to, but also interact with, ethnic variables in predicting depressive symptoms and suicidal behaviors in Latinos.

Purpose of This Study

With these considerations in mind, we conducted the present study to (a) examine the relations between ethnic variables (viz., ethnic affirmation, ethnic identity achievement, ethnic behaviors, and other group orientation), negative life events, depressive symptoms, and suicidal behaviors in Latinos; (b) determine whether ethnic variables are a significant predictor of depressive symptoms and suicidal behaviors in Latinos; (c) determine whether negative life events would add to the prediction of depressive symptoms and suicidal behaviors beyond ethnic variables in Latinos; and (d) explore the possibility that ethnic variables may interact with negative life events to account for significant variance in depressive symptoms and suicidal behaviors in Latinos.

Given that ethnic variables have often been found to be associated with better psychological outcomes in ethnic minorities and to serve as protective factors, we predicted that ethnic variables would be negatively correlated with both depressive symptoms and suicidal behaviors in Latinos. Similarly, due to findings that have pointed to a positive association between negative life events and negative psychological outcomes, we predicted that negative life events would be positively correlated with both depressive symptoms and suicidal behaviors in Latinos. Relatedly, because of the importance of ethnic variables in adjustment (Maldonado-Molina et al., 2006), we predicted that ethnic variables would account for a significant amount of the variance in each of the two negative psychological outcomes examined in the present study. Moreover, we expected that the inclusion of negative life events would significantly augment the prediction models obtained for our two negative psychological outcomes. Lastly, we did not have any compelling basis to make any specific predictions for interaction effects. However, because ethnic variables have been taken to represent a positive psychological construct in ethnic minorities, we anticipated a general pattern in which the impact of negative life events on depressive symptoms and suicidal behaviors might be weaker for Latinos with a strong sense of ethnic identity and other group orientation, than for those with a weak sense of ethnic identity and other group orientation.

Method

Participants

A total of 160 self-identified Latino American college students (38 male and 122 female) were recruited from a large, diverse Eastern public university in the United States. This university is estimated to have 15,000 enrolled undergraduate students of which approximately 40% are Latino. Ages ranged from 17 to 46 years, with a mean age of 19.78 (SD = 3.70). Fifty-two percent of the sample consisted of freshmen students, 20.5% sophomores, 5% juniors, and 1.5% seniors in college. In addition, 60.5% of the surveyed Latino American students reported to be Catholic, 1% Protestant, 5% reported no religious background, and the remaining 12% reported to be “other.”

Participants were recruited from an introductory psychology course and received research credit for their participation. Participants were not made aware of the purpose of the study until the completion of the study. All participants provided written, informed consent.

Measures

Ethnic variables

Ethnic variables were assessed by the MEIM (Phinney, 1992). The MEIM is a 20-item measure that assesses for schemas associated with ethnic identity (i.e., Ethnic Affirmation, Ethnic Identity Achievement, and Ethnic Behaviors) as well as the broader social identity (i.e., Other Group Orientation). Respondents are asked to indicate how much they agree or disagree with each statement on a 4-point Likert-type scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 4 (strongly agree). Evidence for the construct validity of the MEIM has been reported in Phinney (1992). In the present study, internal reliability was .86 for Affirmation and Belonging, .77 for Ethnic Identity Achievement, and .61 for Other Group Orientation. Because the Behaviors and Practices subscale is only composed of two items, internal reliabilities cannot be constructed. In general, higher scores on the first three scales of the MEIM scales indicate greater attention to one’s ethnic identity based on personal experiences, and higher scores on the final subscale of Other Group Orientation indicates greater interaction with and positive attitudes toward diverse others.

Negative life events

Negative life events were assessed by the Life Events Checklist for College Students (LECCS; Tomoda, 1997). The LECCS is a 46-item measure of positive life events (e.g., “Increased the number of friends whose company is enjoyed”) and negative life events (e.g., “A close friend became ill/died”) that students have experienced in the last 12 months. For the purpose of this study, we chose to only use the items related to negative life events. Respondents are asked to evaluate the influence of each life event on a scale of +100 (extremely positive) to −100 (extremely negative). Evidence for the construct validity has been found in Hirsch, Chang, and Jeglic (2012). In the present study, internal reliability was .74. Higher scores on the LECCS indicate greater experience of negative life events.

Depressive symptoms

Depressive symptoms were assessed by the Beck Depression Inventory–II (BDI-II; Beck, Steer, & Brown, 1996). The BDI is a 21-item self-report measure of depressive symptomatology. Respondents are asked to indicate the extent to which they have experienced in the past 2 weeks (e.g., “I am sad all the time”) specific depressive symptoms across a 4-point Likert-type measure (e.g., 0 = absence to 3 = severe presence). Evidence for the construct validity of the BDI-II has been reported in Carmody (2005). In the present study, internal reliability was .89. Higher scores indicate more severe levels of depressive symptomatology.

Suicidal behaviors

Suicidal behaviors were assessed by the Suicide Behaviors Questionnaire–Revised (SBQ-R; Osman et al., 2001). The SBQ-R is a four-item self-report measure of key aspects of suicidality, namely, lifetime ideation and/or suicide attempt (e.g., “Have you ever thought about or attempted to kill yourself?”), frequency of suicidal ideation over the past 12 months (e.g., “How often have you thought about killing yourself in the past year?”), and likelihood of suicidal behavior in the future (e.g., “How likely is it that you will attempt suicide someday?”). The responses for each item are given total points and are measured across a 5- or 6-point Likert-type scale. Evidence for the construct validity of the SBQ-R has been reported in Osman et al. (2001). In the present sample, internal reliability was .77. In general, higher scores on the SBQ-R indicate greater suicidal behaviors.

Procedure

Self-identified Latino/a college students taking an Introduction to Psychology course were solicited, in exchange for research credit, to participate in a paper-and-pencil study looking at personality and adjustment using a Psychology Subject Pool website. A total of 160 Latinos signed up for the study online and then completed all study measures a few days later in a group setting. The study included a self-report battery involving the MEIM, LECCS, BDI-II, and SBQ-R scales. Measures were randomized to control for ordering effects. The battery was administered in groups of 15 or more participants. Of the original sample, four participants (all female) failed to complete all items on all study measures. Accordingly, all subsequent analyses are based on the 156 (38 male and 118 female) participants who completed all study measures.

Results

Correlations, means, and standard deviations for all study measures are presented in Table 1. As expected, higher scores on the MEIM scales, including other group orientation, were, in general, associated with lower scores on the BDI-II and the SBQ-R. Likewise, higher scores on the LECCS were associated with higher scores on the two outcome measures.

Table 1.

Correlations Between All Study Measures in Latino College Students (N = 156).

Measures	1	2	3	4	5	6	7
1. Ethnic affirmation	—
2. Ethnic identity achievement	.60***	—
3. Ethnic behaviors	.56***	.61***	—
4. Other group orientation	.29***	.36***	.33***	—
5. Negative life events	.01	−.06	−.00	−.14	—
6. Depressive symptoms	−.21**	−.16*	−.23**	−.24**	.39***	—
7. Suicidal behaviors	−.13	−.16*	−.23**	−.24**	.30***	.57***	—
M	16.75	19.77	4.79	19.95	6.74	13.02	1.66
SD	3.23	4.38	1.66	3.09	3.70	8.80	3.06

p < .05. **p < .01. ***p < .001.

To examine the predictive utility of ethnic variables and negative life events in accounting for depressive symptoms and suicidal behaviors in Latinos, we conducted a series of hierarchical regression analyses. For each prediction equation, demographic information scores were entered as a set to the first step to act as controls for the study. Scores from the MEIM scales, including other group orientation, were entered as a set in the second step, followed by LECCS scores in the third step. In addition, we included the multiplicative terms of Ethnic Variables × Negative Life Events as the fourth step, for each of the MEIM scales. As noted earlier, we wanted to explore the possibility that ethnic variables may interact with negative life events to further augment our prediction models for each of the two outcomes examined. Results of these analyses for predicting variance in depressive symptoms and suicidal behaviors are presented in Table 2. To determine whether ethnic variables and negative life events accounted for a small, medium, or large amount of the variance in depressive symptoms and suicidal behaviors, we used Cohen’s (1977) convention for small (f² = .02), medium (f² = .15), and large effects (f² = .35).

Table 2.

Results of Hierarchical Regression Analyses Showing Amount of Variance in Depressive Symptoms and Suicidal Behaviors Accounted for by Ethnic Variables and NLE in Latino College Students (N = 156).

Outcome and measure	β	R ²	ΔR²	F
Depressive symptoms
Step 1: Demographics		.08	—	3.31*
Age	−.03
Sex	.24**
Year	.10
Religion	−.09
Step 2: Ethnic variables		.16	.08	3.36*
Affirmation and belonging	−.14
Behaviors and practices	.07
Ethnic identity achievement	−.19
Other group orientation	−.08
Step 3: NLE	.40***	.31	.15	30.83***
Step 4: Ethnic Variables × NLE		.34	.03	1.55
Affirmation and Belonging × NLE	.18
Behaviors and Practices × NLE	.08
Ethnic Identity Achievement × NLE	−.07
Other Group Orientation × NLE	−1.32*
Suicidal behaviors
Step 1: Demographics		.04	—	1.70
Age	−.04
Sex	.14
Year	.16
Religion	.07
Step 2: Ethnic variables		.12	.08	3.18*
Affirmation and belonging	.00
Behaviors and practices	−.02
Ethnic identity achievement	−.24*
Other group orientation	−.07
Step 3: NLE	.25**	.18	.06	9.91**
Step 4: Ethnic Variables × NLE		.24	.06	2.68*
Affirmation and Belonging × NLE	−.05
Behaviors and Practices × NLE	.53
Ethnic Identity Achievement × NLE	−.16
Other Group Orientation × NLE	−1.77**

Note. NLE = negative life events.

p < .05. **p < .01. ***p < .001.

As the table shows, in predicting depressive symptoms, the set of demographic information scores was found to account for a small (f² = .09) but significant 8% of variance in depressive symptoms scores, F(4, 147) = 3.31, p < .05. In Step 2, the set of ethnic variables was found to account for a small (f² = .09) but significant 8% of additional variance in depressive symptoms scores, F(4, 143) = 3.36, p < .05. When negative life events was entered in the next step, it was found to be a significant unique predictor (β = .40, p < .001), and to account for a medium (f² = .18) and significant 15% of additional variance in depressive symptoms, F(1, 142) = 30.83, p < .001. When the set of interaction terms was entered in the last step, it failed to account for significant additional variance. Noteworthy, however, the Other Group Orientation × Negative Life Events interaction term emerged as the only significant unique predictor of depressive symptoms (β = −1.32, p < .05). The total prediction model, including demographic variables, ethnic variables, and negative life events, was found to account for a large (f² = .45) 31% of significant variance in depressive symptoms, F(9, 151) = 7.12, p < .001.

In predicting suicidal behaviors, the set of demographic variables did not account for any significant variance. In Step 2, the set of ethnic variables was found to account for a small (f² = .09) but significant 8% of variance in suicidal behaviors scores, F(4, 143) = 3.18, p < .05. Within this set, ethnic identity achievement (β = −.24, p < .05) emerged as significant unique predictors. When negative life events was entered in the next step, it was found to be a significant unique predictor (β = .25, p < .01), and to account for a small (f² = .06) but significant 6% of additional variance in suicidal behaviors, F(1, 142) = 9.91, p < .01. When the set of interaction terms was entered in the last step, it was found to account for a small (f² = .06) but significant 6% additional variance in suicidal behaviors. Within the interaction set, the Other Group Orientation × Negative Life Events interaction term emerged as the only significant unique predictor of suicidal behaviors (β = −1.77, p < .01). The total prediction model, including demographic variables, ethnic variables, negative life events, and the interaction terms, was found to account for a medium (f² = .32) 24% of significant variance in suicidal behaviors scores, F(13, 151) = 3.33, p < .001.

To visually inspect the manner in which other group orientation and negative life events interacted with each other in predicting suicidal behaviors, we plotted the regression of suicidal behaviors on negative life events (at low and high levels, using the mean of 6.74 ± 1 SD of 3.70) at low versus high levels of other group orientation (using the mean of 19.95 ± 1 SD of 3.09) based on our initial regression results. As Figure 1 shows, the positive association between negative life events and suicidal risk was stronger for Latinos with low, compared with high, other group orientation. Parenthetically, a visual examination of the interaction found in predicting depressive symptoms indicated the same pattern, namely, the positive association between negative life events and depressive symptoms was stronger for Latinos with low other group orientation, compared with Latinos with high other group orientation.

Figure 1.

Suicidal behaviors at low versus high levels of negative life events for Latinos with low other group orientation and high other group orientation.

Discussion

Given that depression and suicide represent pressing concerns among Latinos (Alegría et al., 2008; Heron, 2012), an important goal of the present study was to determine whether ethnic variables (viz., ethnic affirmation and belonging, ethnic identity achievement, ethnic behaviors and practices, and ethnic-other group orientation) and negative life events would statistically predict depressive symptoms and suicidal behaviors in a sample of Latino college students. Consistent with past research, we found that ethnic variables accounted for a significant amount of the variance in both depressive symptoms and suicidal behavior. However, while no specific ethnic variable emerged as a significant individual predictor of depressive symptoms, behaviors and practices emerged as the only significant individual predictor of suicidal behaviors. Thus, our findings show that the combination of ethnic variables is statistically significantly involved in fewer experiences of both depressive symptoms and suicidal behaviors; however, the practice of ethnic specific behaviors (e.g., familismo and respeto practices; Lorenzo-Blanco, Unger, Baezconde-Garbanati, Ritt-Olson, & Soto, 2012) is especially important in potentially protecting Latino American college students from suicidal behaviors.

Beyond these findings for ethnic variables, we found that the inclusion of negative life events significantly augmented the prediction model of both depressive symptoms and suicidal behaviors in Latinos. Interestingly, negative life events accounted for more than 2 times the amount of unique variance in depressive symptoms compared with in suicidal behaviors. This difference points to the potential need to develop more comprehensive models of suicidal behavior in Latinos that go beyond an examination of ethnic variables and negative life events. For example, findings from studies looking at suicide risk in Latinos have pointed to the importance of considering the impact of family cohesion versus conflict (e.g., Peña et al., 2011). Thus, beyond ethnic variables and negative life events, the added presence of chronic family conflicts may further contribute to increased risk of suicidal behaviors in Latinos.

Interestingly, when we looked for a possible Ethnic Variable × Negative Life Events interaction, only one significant finding emerged in predicting significant variance in suicidal behaviors. Specifically, we found that the association between negative life events and suicidal behaviors was exacerbated among Latinos with low other group orientation, compared with the association among Latinos with high other group orientation. That is, interacting with members of other ethnic minority groups appeared to buffer the damaging effects of experiencing negative life events on suicidal behaviors among Latinos. Although it is not clear why this finding emerged, one possibility may be that because this sample of Latino college students come from an ethnically diverse college student population, by having regular interactions with members of other ethnic groups that share similar life experiences (e.g., discrimination or prejudice from the majority group), some Latinos are able to expand their perceived network of social support to help offset vulnerabilities when experiencing negative life events. Taken together, our findings help illustrate the potential complex interplay between ethnic variables and negative life events in predicting important psychological outcomes in Latinos. In addition, researchers have pointed to the importance of diversity interactions in college educational environments, showing that increases in interactions with diverse others are associated with educational benefits (e.g., leadership skills, psychological well-being, and intellectual engagement; Bowman, 2013). Thus, while our results indicate that ethnic variables related to identity with one’s own ethnic group are important, in the context of a diverse college campus, increases in positive interactions and attitudes toward individuals of other ethnic groups may also be important in mitigating depressive symptoms and suicidal behaviors, especially in mitigating the impact of negative life events on suicidal behaviors.

Limitations

Although the present findings provide promising empirical support for an integrative model involving ethnic variables and negative life events as both additive and interactive predictors of depressive symptoms and suicidal behaviors in Latinos, some important limitations to the present study should also be noted. First, the focus of our study was on Latinos as a general group. However, because Latinos are composed of diverse ethnic subgroups, it would be important to evaluate the generalizability of the present findings in more specific ethnic groups (e.g., Mexican Americans, Puerto Ricans, Cuban Americans). Second, and relatedly, because this study was conducted in a convenience sample of Latino college students, it would be important to examine the generalizability of the present findings in a more heterogeneous sample of Latinos (e.g., different ages, educational backgrounds, socioeconomic backgrounds). Third, depression and suicide are problems encountered across all racial and ethnic groups; thus, it would be useful to determine whether the present findings can also be replicated in other racial/ethnic groups. Fourth, because our sample was composed of primarily female Latino college students, it would be important to examine this model in a more gender-proportionate sample, or in a sample of Latino males to see whether our findings may generalize. Fifth, because ethnic variables and negative life events have also been linked to other important outcomes (e.g., anxiety), it would also be important to determine whether the present prediction model may also be used in predicting other psychological outcomes in Latinos. Lastly, due to the cross-sectional nature of the present study, cause and effect cannot be determined. In that regard, it would be important in future studies to determine whether and how ethnic variables and negative events may predict changes in depressive symptoms and suicidal behaviors among Latinos across time.

In summary, we examined the utility of a prediction model involving ethnic variables and negative life events as predictors of depressive symptoms and suicidal behaviors in Latino college students. Consistent with expectations, we found evidence to support the importance of ethnic variables, especially other group orientation, and negative life events as additive predictors of both depressive symptoms and suicidal risk. Furthermore, we found partial support for the notion that the association between negative life events and suicidal risk is moderated by other group orientation. Overall, our findings not only point to a need to appreciate all facets associated with ethnic identity (viz., other group orientation), but also to a need to consider contexts around which ethnic variables may interact with other factors to predict psychological health in Latinos.

Footnotes

Acknowledgements

The first author thanks Chang Suk-Choon and Tae Myung-Sook for their encouragement and support throughout this project.

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Author Biographies

Edward C. Chang, Ph.D., is a Professor of Psychology and Social Work at the University of Michigan. His research is focused on the intersections of clinical, social, personality, health and positive psychology, with a particular interest in the role of culture and context on adjustment.

Elizabeth A. Yu is a Clinical Science doctoral student in the Department of Psychology at the University of Michigan. Her research is focused on examining ethno-cultural nuances in how positive psychological strengths such as meaning in life and positive cognitions are related to adjustment outcomes.

Tina Yu is a student in the Department of Psychology at the University of Michigan. Her research is focused on ethnic/racial psychology, sexual assault victimization, eating disorders, religiosity/spirituality, and cultural variations in adjustment, specifically in Asian/Asian American populations.

Emma R. Kahle is a Program in Social Welfare doctoral student in the School of Social Work at the University of Wisconsin–Madison. She currently works for the Institute for Research on Poverty. Her research is focused on parenting and family well-being, with a specific interest in intimate partner violence.

Viviana Hernandez is a student in the School of Information at the University of Michigan. Her research has focused on ethnic/racial psychology and cultural variations in psychological adjustment, specifically in Latino/a populations.

Jean M. Kim is a Clinical Science doctoral student in the Department of Psychology at the University of Southern California. Her research is focused on the role of culture in psychopathology, determinants of help-seeking behavior, and the efficacy of telehealth-based interventions.

Elizabeth L. Jeglic, Ph.D., is a Professor of Psychology at John Jay College of Criminal Justice in New York City. Her research is focused on the assessment and treatment of suicidal behavior, especially with Latino emerging adults, and on sex offender assessment, treatment and public policy.

Jameson K. Hirsch, Ph.D., is an Associate Professor of Psychology at East Tennessee State University. His research is focused on the intersection of mental and physical health, particularly on protective characteristics that might promote resiliency, and in vulnerable populations including ethnic minorities, veterans and those with chronic illness.

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