Latinx College Students: How Schemas and Attachments Impact Depression and Relationship Satisfaction

Abstract

Latinx college students face challenges regarding depression. The relationships between early maladaptive schemas (EMS) and attachment style on depression and relationship satisfaction were investigated among 236 Latinx college student participants. The Young Schema Questionnaire–Short Form (YSQ-S3) total score was utilized to identify overall schema. Significant correlations were found. Overall schema, attachment anxiety, attachment avoidance, and depression were all positively correlated, while attachment anxiety, attachment avoidance, and depression were negatively correlated with relationship satisfaction. In multiple regression analyses, Model 1, overall schema and attachment anxiety significantly predicted depression. In Model 2, overall schema, attachment anxiety, and attachment avoidance significantly predicted relationship satisfaction, with EMS acting as a positive predictor. Results suggest that Latinx college students with EMS and anxious attachment style endorse more depression, while the influence of EMS and attachment style on relationship satisfaction needs to be further investigated. Considerations for the use of schema therapy and future research are discussed.

Keywords

Latinx college students early maladaptive schemas attachment style depression relationship satisfaction

Around 36.6% of full-time college students in the United States identify as Hispanic or Latino (U.S. Department of Commerce, 2016). For this article, we will use the term Latinx as it acknowledges for the Hispanic and Latina/o community a variety of gender identification and serves as a representation of the marginalized experiences of many members (DeGuzmán, 2017). Research suggests that depression is an ongoing issue among Latinx young adults aged 18 to 25 years; this population is 3.7 times more likely than those 25 years and older to meet the criteria for major depressive disorder (Camacho et al., 2015; Garcini et al., 2017). For Latinx college students, the intensity of depression symptoms can be influenced by minority stress, which relates to academic concerns and negative perceptions of campus climate related to their ethnic identification (Arbona & Jimenez, 2014). Depression tends to be misdiagnosed due to somatic symptomology and is often left untreated for all genders within this population (McGuire et al., 2006).

Well above 50% of Latinx individuals with depressive symptomology tend to underutilize mental health services (Anastasia & Bridges, 2015; Cabassa, 2007). Cultural stigmas that create discomfort at the thought of disclosing such issues can keep members of this community from seeking help (Anastasia & Bridges, 2015; Hovey et al., 2014). For those who seek treatment, culturally competent approaches to cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) have shown to effectively reduce symptoms of depression and other pathologies for Latinx individuals in both academic and nonacademic settings (Hovey et al., 2014; Vaclavik et al., 2017).

One type of CBT that has shown to be effective in treating depression for Latina young adults is schema therapy (ST). Developed by Young (1990), ST also draws from psychoanalytic and attachment theories, existential approaches, and constructivist models of therapy; it aims to identify the psychological themes associated with pathology and to treat the related chronic mental health concerns that traditional CBT interventions could not improve (Bach et al., 2017; Hawke & Provencher, 2012). In their study of nine Latina young adults with clinical depression, Heilemann et al. (2011) found the use of ST in combination with motivational interviewing to be a culturally salient way to effectively lower treatment resistance, thus increasing retention. This approach yielded continued improvement in depression symptoms after 1 year. However, very few studies have explored ST as it relates to depression for Latinx young adults in general, while no investigation of how this approach might be utilized to conceptualize depression for Latinx college students could be found.

Early Maladaptive Schemas (EMS) and Attachment Style

In ST, the themes associated with pathology are defined as EMS, which are “extremely stable and enduring, comprising memories, emotions, cognitions, and bodily sensations regarding oneself and one’s relationship with others, that develop during childhood and are elaborated on throughout the individual’s lifetime, and that are dysfunctional to a significant degree” (Young et al., 2003, p. 7). There are 18 EMS; examples include defectiveness/shame: a belief that one is defective and that exposure of such flaws would keep others from loving them; dependence/incompetence: a belief that one is unable to manage life’s everyday tasks without significant help from others; and abandonment/instability: a belief that others will not be available for support or connection. EMS are categorized into five schema domains: disconnection and rejection, impaired autonomy and performance, impaired limits, other directedness, and, overvigilance and inhibition.

Parenting styles that lead to unmet emotional needs for secure attachment bonds influence the development of EMS in adulthood (Simard et al., 2011). Attachment bonds consist of a strong desire to maintain close proximity to one’s primary caregiver and generate distress at the termination of the relationship (Ainsworth, 1989). In Latinx culture, familismo describes the development and maintenance of these bonds with family and others, and includes the valuing of obligation, support, and respect toward familial ties (Stein et al., 2019; Vesely et al., 2014).

Attachment bonds shape how one forms relationships with others in adulthood, which is known as attachment style (Hazan & Shaver, 1987). Securely attached individuals tend to feel cared for, have a stronger sense of security, and are more confident in their ability to form relationships (Bowlby, 1969; Fleming, 2008), whereas those with insecure (anxious or avoidant) attachment styles tend to behave in more distressful, emotionally reactive, and aggressive ways (Wang et al., 2012). While related to attachment style, EMS distinctly influence individuals’ views of stressful events, how they experience the world and interact with others, and with regular activation become stronger, more ingrained, and automatic (Young, 1990; Young et al., 2003). EMS tend to remain stable over time as they adapt and change with age and development (Rijkeboer et al., 2005; Riso et al., 2006; Young, 1990; Young et al., 2003).

Depression

Studies that examined EMS in clinical, nonclinical, and student populations have identified positive connections between higher EMS in general and depressive symptomology (Calvete et al., 2005; Darvishi et al., 2013; Davoodi et al., 2018). Other studies have also found associations between specific EMS (e.g., defectiveness/shame, dependence/incompetence, abandonment/instability, and insufficient self-control) and depression (Hawke et al., 2011; Oliveira & Nobre, 2013). Several global studies of college student samples from various countries and ethnic groups have confirmed associations between general and/or specific EMS and depression with that demographic (Sigre-Leirós et al., 2013; Simons et al., 2018; Thimm, 2017).

Research suggests that attachment bonds also related to depression for college students (Wei et al., 2005). For example, Owens et al. (2018) in their study of undergraduates who experienced stressful events, found both anxiety and avoidance attachment styles to be associated with depression symptom severity. In a separate study on the impact of culturally specific attachment bonds on depression, Stein et al. (2019) found that familism pride was correlated with lower depression levels for Latinx college students.

Relationship Satisfaction

As EMS and attachment style play important roles in one’s experiences of relationships in adulthood, it is important to also consider how they relate to relationship satisfaction for this population. Various international studies have investigated the connections between these variables for multiple groups (Dumitrescu & Rusu, 2012; Kebritchi & Mohammadkhani, 2016). For example, in Dumitrescu and Rusu’s (2012) study of Romanian couples, high levels of EMS predicted low levels of relationship satisfaction for Romanian couples, and attachment anxiety was associated with lower perceptions of relationship quality. While no studies could be found that looked at all three variables for U.S. college students, a study on attachment style and relationship satisfaction for Latinx college students found that secure attachment related to higher satisfaction in close friendships (Rodriguez et al., 2014).

Current Study

Research on how EMS and attachment style relate to depression and relationship satisfaction for Latinx college students is needed. For investigating EMS, the Young Schema Questionnaire–Short Form (YSQ-S3), developed by Young (2005), provides scores for the 18 schema subscales as well as a total schema score that indicates high EMS across all subscales. We found it imperative to utilize the total score to determine how EMS in general relate to depression and the other variables of interest, and have labeled this overall schema. It is hypothesized that overall schema and attachment style (attachment anxiety and attachment avoidance) would be significantly positively associated with each other and jointly predict higher depression and lower relationship satisfaction for this population. The findings will shed light on the use of ST and attachment theory to conceptualize depression and relationship dynamics for this population.

Method

Procedures and Participants

After the institutional review board approval for human ethics, this cross-sectional study was conducted at a major public university in the Southwestern United States. After data cleanup, there were a total of 236 Latinx college student participants. Latinx-identified, bilingual student research assistant team members were first trained in culturally mindful approaches to conducting research with Latinx populations (Marín & Marín, 1991; Skaff et al., 2002). They subsequently administered surveys to participants from various areas of the university, including student union and dining areas. Participants were first asked whether they identify as Latinx and whether they would like to participate in a research study. While all identified as Latinx, some also indicated a specific ethnic heritage or designation (e.g., 48% of participants also self-reported as Mexican or Mexican American; 24% selected the Other box and wrote in varying identifications such as Mexican and Puerto Rican, or Guatemalan; and 20% described themselves as Hispanic). A compensation of US$5 in cash was provided to each participant after the completion of the paper-based survey. Participants were mostly female (67%), between 18 and 24 years old (85%), second generation (76%), single (92%), and had an average grade point average (GPA) of 3.09 (SD = 0.47, range = 1.01–4.00). All participants identified as heterosexual. See Table 1 for more information on participants’ demographics.

Table 1.

Participants’ Demographics (N = 236).

Demographics	N	%
Gender
Female	158	66.9
Male	78	33.1
Age range
18–24	200	84.7
25–34	36	15.3
Level of education
High school degree	45	19.1
Some college	106	44.9
Associate degree	84	35.6

Measures

The Young Schema Questionnaire (YSQ) was developed to assess EMS in individuals with mental health issues. A shortened version, the YSQ-S3 consists of 90 items and 18 schema subscales grouped within five domains (Young, 2005). The YSQ-S3 has shown psychometric soundness for use in Western countries (Bach et al., 2017), and is advantageous for clinical work due to its shortened length and ability to predict psychological disorders (Hawke & Provencher, 2012). YSQ-S3 scores have been associated with clinical depression (Wang et al., 2010). Participants rate on a 6-point scale from 1 (completely untrue of me) to 6 (describes me perfectly) how strongly each item describes them over the past year (e.g., “I find myself clinging to people I’m close to because I am afraid they’ll leave me,” “No man/woman I desire could love me once he or she saw my defects,” and “I do not feel capable of getting by on my own in everyday life”). The mean of all items is used to obtain the total score. Higher total score indicates a high overall schema profile. Studies with older adolescent and college student populations have shown good internal consistency with alphas for the schema subscales between .72 and .90 as well as sound convergent validity with various measures of mental health issues (Aftab et al., 2017). The present study focused on the overall schema, and Cronbach’s alpha for the overall schema (YSQ-S3 total score) for this study was .96.

The Experiences in Close Relationship–Revised (ECR-R; Fraley et al., 2000) is a 36-item measure of attachment style: 18 items assess anxiety (e.g., “I’m afraid that I will lose my partner’s love” and “I often worry that my partner will not want to stay with me”) and 18 items assess avoidance (e.g., “I prefer not to show a partner how I feel deep down” and “I get uncomfortable when a romantic partner wants to be very close”). Participants rate on a 7-point scale from 1 (disagree strongly) to 7 (agree strongly) how strongly each item relates to their feelings in previous or current relationships with close others (e.g., romantic partners, family members, and friends). The mean of items for each dimension is used to determine total scores, where high scores indicated insecure attachment (anxiety and/or avoidance). The ECR-R is a widely used measure with sound psychometric properties (Mikulincer & Goodman, 2006; Shaver & Mikulincer, 2002). Wei et al. (2007) have found the ECR-R to be highly reliable and valid for use with a wide range of populations. Cronbach’s alphas of the Attachment Anxiety and Attachment Avoidance subscales for this study were .93 and .93, respectively.

The Relationship Assessment Scale (RAS; Hendrick et al., 1988) is a seven-item measure of relationship satisfaction in either a current or previous romantic relationship. Participants who were never in a romantic relationship were asked to reflect on a relationship with a close friend or family member. Participants rate on a 5-point scale from 1 (e.g., not satisfied) to 5 (e.g., very satisfied) the number that best answers each item for them. Sample items include, “In general, how satisfied are you with your relationship?” “How many problems are there in your relationship?” and “How good is your relationship compared to most?” The mean across all items is used to determine the total score. Average scores range from 1 to 5; higher scores indicate higher levels of relationship satisfaction. The RAS has shown good internal consistency and convergent validity across numerous samples (Hendrick et al., 1988; Vaughn & Matyastick Baier, 1999), and has been tested successfully with Latino-oriented individuals (Contreras et al., 1996). Cronbach’s alpha of the RAS for this study was .87.

The Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale–Revised (CESD-R; Eaton et al., 2004) is a 20-item measure of depression symptoms (e.g., “I felt sad,” “I could not get going,” and “I lost interest in my usual activities”) in the past week or so. Participants rate on a 4-point scale from 1 (not at all) to 5 (nearly every day for 2 weeks) how often they have felt this way. Total scores range from 0 to 60. Higher scores on the CESD-R indicate higher levels of depression. The CESD-R was developed for use with adolescents and young adults and has shown to be a highly reliable and valid measure of depression for various populations in community and psychiatric settings including Hispanic American respondents (Cheng et al., 2015; Wei et al., 2010). Cronbach’s alpha of the CESD-R for this study was .94.

Results

There were significant correlations among the study variables: Overall schema, attachment anxiety, attachment avoidance, and depression were positively correlated with each other, while both attachment dimensions were negatively correlated with relationship satisfaction. No correlation between overall schema and relationship satisfaction was found. The means, standard deviations, and correlations are displayed in Table 2. Several variables were examined to assess the impact of overall schema (high YSQ-S3 total score) and attachment style (attachment anxiety and attachment avoidance) on depression and relationship satisfaction. The results, as displayed in Table 3, indicated that overall schema and attachment anxiety were significant predictors for depression (R² = .38), while overall schema, attachment anxiety, and attachment avoidance were significant predictors for relationship satisfaction. In contrast to the lack of correlation at the bivariate level, overall schema positively predicted relationship satisfaction in the regression model (R² = .34). Moderation analysis of the interaction between overall schema and attachment style with depression as well as with relationship satisfaction yielded no significant results in either model.

Table 2.

Means, Standard Deviations, and Correlations of Measured Variables.

	M (SD)	2	3	4	5
1. Relationship satisfaction	3.84 (0.80)	−.30**	−.31**	−.52**	−.08
2. Depression	18.76 (15.91)	—	.51**	.25**	.59**
3. Attachment anxiety	3.03 (1.23)		—	.40**	.66**
4. Attachment avoidance	2.97 (1.20)			—	.30**
5. YSQ-S3	2.51 (0.67)				—

Note. YSQ = Young Schema Questionnaire.

p < .05. **p < .01. ***p < .001.

Table 3.

Multiple Regression Analyses Predicting Depression and Relationship Satisfaction.

Variables	R ²	Adjusted R²	F	df	B	SE	β	T
For depression
Model	.39	.38	44.29***	(3,208)
Schema (YSQ-S3)					11.10	1.69	.48	6.56***
Attachment anxiety					1.99	0.98	.16	2.04*
Attachment avoidance					0.97	0.78	.08	1.24
For relationship satisfaction
Model	.35	.34	46.50***	(3,208)
Schema (YSQ-S3)					0.24	0.09	.20	2.68**
Attachment anxiety					−0.12	0.05	−.19	−2.40*
Attachment avoidance					−0.36	0.04	−.54	−8.75***

Note. YSQ = Young Schema Questionnaire.

p < .05. **p < .01. ***p < .001.

Discussion

The purpose of this study was to develop recommendations (1) for the use of ST and attachment theory to conceptualize depression and relationship concerns for Latinx college students and (2) to stimulate further research on ST with this population. Many interesting associations were identified. As hypothesized, the present study found that overall schema, attachment anxiety, attachment avoidance, and depression were all significantly positively correlated with each other. Multiple regression analysis also uncovered that as predicted, overall schema and attachment anxiety predicted depression. However, attachment avoidance was surprisingly not a significant predictor in this model. Attachment anxiety, attachment avoidance, and relationship satisfaction were also negatively correlated as expected, but unexpectedly, overall schema and relationship satisfaction had no significant association. In another surprise, a multiple regression analysis of overall schema and attachment style with relationship satisfaction found overall schema to be a positive predictor in that model. It is also important to note that there were no significant differences in gender, age range, generation status, level of education, or GPA for any of the above associations.

The results of the current study suggest important associations between EMS and both attachment anxiety and attachment avoidance for Latinx college students, which supports past findings on the relationship between these variables (Cecero et al., 2004; Mason et al., 2005; Simard et al., 2011). The positive correlations between both attachment dimensions with depression also parallel results in previous studies (Perry et al., 2011). Although both attachment dimensions were correlated with depression, the results of the regression analysis suggest that overall schema with attachment anxiety but not with attachment avoidance is predictive of depression for this population. This suggests that it may be helpful to utilize ST to investigate how EMS relate to depression for anxiously attached individuals. However, this approach may not be as useful for those with avoidant attachment style.

While no significant correlation between overall schema and relationship satisfaction was found, past research suggests a negative association between these variables (Dumitrescu & Rusu, 2012; Kebritchi & Mohammadkhani, 2016). However, in our regression model, when overall schema was combined with attachment style, it had the opposite impact on relationship satisfaction. More consistent with past findings, both attachment styles predicted lower relationship satisfaction as expected (Rodriguez et al., 2014).

In order to make sense of the results, it is important to revisit the differences between attachment style and EMS. Attachment style involves behaviors in adulthood that are a part of the internal working models (IWMs) individuals first develop for themselves and others through repeated attachment-related encounters with primary caregivers during childhood (Bowlby, 1979). However, EMS relate more specifically to the cognitive manifestations (core beliefs) of the affect structures of IWMs and reflect both an individual’s attachment as well as approval/disapproval experiences in childhood (Welburn et al., 2002). EMS are not considered to be irrational and may influence both attachment patterns with close others and interactions in general. Thus, the activation and presentation of EMS might differ based on attachment style and thus influence depression and relationship satisfaction differently as a result. The findings provide evidence that while related, EMS and attachment style are unique constructs whose relationship needs to be better understood for Latinx college students.

Implications for College Counseling

The findings suggest that it may be helpful for college counselors to utilize ST to determine how EMS impact depression symptomology for Latinx students with anxious attachment style. Prior research on ST has demonstrated a reduction in symptoms over time through schema modification (Nordahl et al., 2005). As ST focuses on family and interpersonal relationships in its treatment approach, it is also a great fit for working with Latinx individuals, where loyalty to family can at times lead to difficulty navigating emotional concerns in adult relationships (Heilemann et al., 2011; Rojas, 2018).

The combined use of ST and attachment theory has been recommended; research suggests that it can be therapeutically beneficial to (1) educate clients on their schemas and attachment style and (2) challenge their core schemas as a part of the therapeutic process, which are considered essential elements of change (Platts et al., 2002; Young, 1990). A therapist’s identification of clients’ negative attachment patterns in the therapeutic relationship may build a stronger bond between the therapist and clients that can facilitate a more successful challenge of the clients’ core schemas (Platts et al., 2002). College counselors may consider using the YSQ-S3 together with the ECR-R for Latinx college students who endorse depressive symptomology. For anxiously attached students with depression, counselors can (1) help them to identify their cognitions and emotions, and their beliefs about the self, others, and the world that may exacerbate such concerns; and (2) encourage them to rewrite the schemas related to negative attachment patterns.

Limitations and Future Directions

This study has a few limitations. Our sample comprised students who volunteered to participate in a 15-minute survey for the incentive of US$5. Potential differences may exist between these individuals and those who chose to not participate that cannot easily be determined. Future research would benefit from additional samples from the Latinx college student population and at other universities. In addition, as this is a cross-sectional study, causal relationships cannot be concluded. Future studies should examine how the relationships between the study variables may change over time. Numerous researchers have also expressed concerns over whether the constructs being examined in psychological and medical research are culturally comparable (Skaff et al., 2002). Perhaps the discrepancy between overall schema and relationship satisfaction suggests that the YSQ-S3 is not an adequate measure of the association between these variables for this cultural group. Further research should consider the role that familismo, or the culturally salient development and maintenance of attachment bonds (Stein et al., 2019; Vesely et al., 2014), might play in the interaction between overall schema and attachment style and their combined influence on relationship satisfaction. Lastly, future research should investigate how each of the 18 schemas and five schema domains separately relates to the other variables.

The current study’s findings suggest that overall schema and attachment style play a significant role in depression and relationship satisfaction for Latinx college students. However, as this is one of few existing studies to explore these constructs within the Latinx community, and the first to look exclusively at the college subset, further investigation is warranted. While depression continues to be a significant issue for many Latinx college students, the use of ST to identify EMS and a consideration of attachment anxiety concerns may be helpful tools for counselors and researchers to utilize to better understand individuals’ experiences of this phenomenon.

Footnotes

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Author Biographies

Adrian Rodriguez is an assistant professor of human services in the College of Health and Human Development at California State University, Fullerton, USA. His research focuses on mental health, relationships, and persistence needs for college students of color.

Paul Ratanasiripong is a professor of counseling in the College of Education at California State University, Long Beach, USA. His research focuses on health and mental health issues of college students, university faculty, K-12 students, and schoolteachers in the United States and Asia.

Kimberly Hardaway is a human services major and McNair Scholar in the College of Health and Human Development at California State University, Fullerton, USA. Her research focuses on the well-being of individuals, families, and societies that are affected by various traumas.

Leslie Barron received her BS in child and adolescent development from the College of Health and Human Development at California State University, Fullerton, USA. Her research focuses on factors that affect child and adolescent development among the Latinx population.

Shiho Toyama is a graduate in psychology from the College of Liberal Arts at California State University, Long Beach. USA. Her research focuses on multicultural competency, including an examination of the cultural stigma associated with mental health.

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