Maternal Perceptions of Physical Activity Spaces for Children in Texas Border colonias

Abstract

This study examined differences in mother-reported physical activity (PA) and screen time (ST) based on child sex and mothers’ perceptions of PA resources for Mexican-heritage (MH) children residing in Texas-Mexico border colonias. Mothers with children 8 to 10 years old (n = 335) from colonias in south Texas reported if there were places for their child to be physically active and their child’s hours of PA and ST per day during the week and weekend. Two-way ANCOVAs examined differences in child PA and ST based on presence of PA places and child sex. Only 46.0% of mothers (n = 159) reported places for their child to be physically active; with no significant difference based on sex. Mothers’ perceptions of a place to play was differentially beneficial for girls’ weekday PA and ST. Findings suggest a need to increase perceived and/or actual access to PA places in colonias communities, particularly for girls.

Keywords

screen time children Mexican-heritage physical activity resources

Background

The importance of regular physical activity (PA) as part of a healthy lifestyle is well established for children (Warburton & Bredin, 2017). Benefits include improved mental health and physical functioning. Further, across the life course, regular PA is related to reduced incidence of chronic conditions (e.g., heart disease, obesity, diabetes), improved muscular and skeletal condition, increased longevity, and lower all-cause mortality rates (Powell et al., 2018). However, among myriad other factors, reduced reliance on active forms of transportation and increased screen time (ST), have contributed to increasingly sedentary lifestyles. Reduced PA and increased ST are of particular concern for girls and children residing in immigrant and minority communities, given existing health disparities (Guerrero et al., 2016; Moore et al., 2012; Powell et al., 2006). For example, one study of immigrant children in the United States (US) found neighborhood risk factors (e.g., safety, physical, and social disorder) were associated with lower levels of PA, beyond disparities exhibited in similar US-born children (Brewer & Kimbro, 2014). Specifically, Mexican-heritage children are less likely to engage in sport and PA than white children (Singh et al., 2008). Further, girls are significantly less physically active than their male counterparts (Cooper et al., 2015).

One particular subpopulation of new immigrants who bear several of these disparities reside in the Mexican-heritage colonias along the border of Texas and Mexico. These new immigrant communities/neighborhoods were created to fill a void of low-income housing near the border. Residents of colonias are often classified as a systematically underserved population due to their rural geographic location, rates of poverty, and disproportionate obesity rates (Anders et al., 2010; Waisel, 2013). Many colonia residents live near (19%) or below (42%) the poverty line (U.S. Census Bureau, 2011), and these communities are disproportionately affected by high rates of obesity (41.3%–55.5%), diabetes (32.5%), and depression (19%–29%) (Manusov et al., 2019; Marquez-Velarde et al., 2015; Millard et al., 2017; Olvera et al., 2015; Watt et al., 2016).

The availability of PA resources (e.g., recreational centers, parks) is associated with child PA levels (Cutumisu & Spence, 2012; Karusisi et al., 2012). Colonias often lack PA resources like parks and other public spaces for children to be active (Federal Reserve Bank of Dallas, 2015). Rural and low socioeconomic status neighborhoods generally have fewer PA resources (Estabrooks et al., 2003), forcing residents to overcome barriers, and travel long distances to access PA resources, often on non-walkable roads (Maley et al., 2010). In addition, poor quality of PA resources or perception of existing resources can negatively affect usage (Lee et al., 2005; Zoellner et al., 2012).

Also, of particular importance to this study, there are several parental influences of youth PA behavior. For example, parents influence children’s PA and sedentary behaviors through modeling active lifestyle choices (Welk et al., 2003). Parental participation and supervision of activity is also related to higher levels of PA and lower sedentary time in children (Rebold et al., 2016). Consistent with these examples, parental support (e.g., transport, encouragement) and modeling behaviors were found to be positively related to children’s reported PA levels in a systematic review (Edwardson & Gorely, 2010). Further, within Latinx family contexts, mothers are often seen as the family gatekeepers and primarily responsible for health and wellbeing related care of the children (Altenburger et al., 2018; Galanti, 2003).

Building on these influences, this study applies the family systems theory and the health belief model to examine the impact of maternal perceptions of having a place for their child to be physically active and a child’s sex associated with child PA and ST. The family systems theory posits that a family functions as a system wherein the members interact and influence one another’s behaviors and perceptions (Broderick, 1993). Within the health belief model, individuals weigh the perceived benefits of and barriers to engaging in a behavior (Champion & Skinner, 2008). Thus, a mother’s perception of the presence of a dedicated place for her child to actively play would influence her child’s actual PA and ST behaviors.

Study Aims

To further understand health disparities and possible avenues to promote healthy PA and ST behaviors among a population of Mexican-heritage children, the purpose of this study was to examine impacts of maternal perception of having a place to be physically active on child PA and ST behaviors, and if a child’s sex altered that association.

Methods

Promotora-researchers recruited mothers (n = 335) from colonias in Hidalgo County, Texas to complete researcher-administrated surveys. Their recruitment strategies included door-to-door canvassing, re-contacting participants from previous studies, and partnering with local community leaders to spread information about this study. Promotora-researchers are community health workers native to the region they work in that provide a vital connection between academic researchers and underserved and hard to reach populations. These promotoras were trained in research methods and supported to make strong connections with the communities they served. To be included in this study, mothers were 21 years of age, had a child between the ages of 8 and 10 years old living in their household, were of Mexican heritage (born in Mexico, had children that were born in Mexico, or children’s grandparent(s) were born in Mexico), preferred to speak in Spanish, lived in their colonia for at least 1 year, and had a husband/partner actively living in their household. Mothers gave consent and were interviewed by promotora-researchers in Spanish. The study was approved by the referent university IRB.

Participants

Mothers in this sample (n = 335) were on average 35.16 years old (SD = 6.20) and 81.3% (n = 282) were born in Mexico. The mean highest grade completed in school was 9.01 (SD = 2.97) and 98.5% (n = 330) preferred to speak Spanish. Mothers reported working a mean of 26.70 hours per week (SD = 12.31) and 31.8% (n = 107) indicated $1,000 to $1,499 as their monthly household income. Regarding children in this sample, 56.0% were boys (n = 188) and the mean age was 9.01 years old (SD = 0.83).

Measures

To frame the survey, mothers were asked to think about one of their children aged 8 to 10 years old. If they had more than one child in the age range, they were asked to pick one and respond accordingly. Mothers were then asked questions regarding their perceptions of their child’s PA and ST, followed by a series of demographic items.

Physical activity and screen time

Mothers first reported the number of hours of active play their child engaged in per day during the week and on the weekend separately. This scale was ordinal with response options of “none,” “less than 1,” “1 to 2,” and “more than 2,” coded 0 to 3 accordingly. Likewise, mothers reported ST separately for weekdays and weekend days in response to how many hours their child spends at home on a normal day using electronics. This scale had response options of “none,” “1 to 2,” “3,” and “4 or more,” coded 0 to 3.

Perception of neighborhood

Perception of the neighborhood was posed by asking if there were places close by for the child to be physically active. This item was limited to a “yes” or “no” response, coded 1 and 0 respectively.

Covariates

Child’s age and sex were reported by the mother. Mothers also reported their own date of birth, country of birth, marital status (married or not married-living with partner), highest grade completed in school, primary language preference, household income, and total amount of hours they worked per week.

Analysis

Descriptive statistics such as frequencies, means, and standard deviations were calculated for each item. Two-way ANCOVAs were run to determine significant differences in reported child PA and ST based on perception of neighborhood and child’s sex while controlling for child’s age, mother’s age, and mother’s demographic variables. Interaction terms between child’s sex and neighborhood perception were examined. Separate ANCOVAs were calculated for each PA and ST variable. All analyses were conducted using SPSS v.25 (IBM, 2018).

Results

In total, 46.0% of mothers (n = 154) reported there were places for their child to be physically active close by. There was no significant difference in the proportion of mothers of boys (50.0%) and mothers of girls (41.4%) who agreed there were places for their child to be physically active close by (OR = 1.40, 95% CI [0.91, 2.15]).

Mothers reported a mean child weekday PA score of 2.63 (SD = 0.61) and a mean child weekend day PA score of 2.65 (SD = 0.72), both indicating mothers perceived their children to be active outside for around 2 hours per day on average. There was a statistically significant two-way interaction between sex of the child and neighborhood perception for weekday PA, when controlling for demographics, F(1, 325) = 4.25, p = .04, partial ƞ² = .05. There was no significant two-way interaction for weekend PA, F(1, 325) = 0.08, p = .78, partial ƞ² = .01; however, there was a significant main effect of neighborhood perception, F(1, 325) = 5.53, p = .01, partial ƞ² = .06.

Additionally, mothers reported a mean ST score of 1.42 (SD = 0.86) for weekdays and 1.53 (SD = 1.00) for weekend days indicating mothers perceived their children were using electronics for 2 to 3 hours per day. There was a statistically significant two-way interaction between sex of the child and neighborhood perception for weekday ST, when controlling for demographics, F(1, 325) = 4.50, p = .03, partial ƞ² = .03. There were no statistically significant main or interaction effects associated with weekend ST. ANCOVA results, means, adjusted means, standard deviations, and standard errors are presented in Table 1.

Table 1.

Adjusted and Unadjusted Means and Variability in Self-Reported PA Based on Two-Way ANCOVA Results Comparing Effects of Sex of the Child and Mother’s Perception of a Place to be Active.

	Girl		Boy
	Place—yes	Place—no	Place—yes	Place—no
PA—weekday
Unadjusted M (SD)	2.65 (0.54)	2.27 (0.60)	2.61 (0.62)	2.65 (0.65)
Adjusted M (SE)	2.64 (0.08)	2.29 (0.07)	2.62 (0.06)	2.66 (0.06)
Sex effect	F(1, 325) = 0.14, p = .71, partial ƞ² = .01
Place effect	F(1, 325) = 0.01, p = .91, partial ƞ² = .01
Interaction effect	F(1, 325) = 4.25, p = .04, partial ƞ² = .05
PA—weekend
Unadjusted M (SD)	2.81 (0.54)	2.57 (0.78)	2.72 (0.63)	2.54 (0.82)
Adjusted M (SE)	2.78 (0.09)	2.57 (0.07)	2.72 (0.07)	2.56 (0.07)
Sex effect	F(1, 325) = 0.21, p = .65, partial ƞ² = .01
Place effect	F(1, 325) = 5.53, p = .01, partial ƞ² = .06
Interaction effect	F(1, 325) = 0.08, p = .78, partial ƞ² = .01
ST—weekday
Unadjusted M (SD)	1.16 (0.75)	1.50 (0.85)	1.49 (0.90)	1.45 (0.87)
Adjusted M (SE)	1.14 (0.11)	1.50 (0.09)	1.50 (0.09)	1.46 (0.09)
Sex effect	F(1, 325) = 2.86, p = .09, partial ƞ² = .01
Place effect	F(1, 325) = 2.71, p = .10, partial ƞ² = .01
Interaction effect	F(1, 325) = 4.50, p = .03, partial ƞ² = .03
ST—weekend
Unadjusted M (SD)	1.48 (1.03)	1.61 (0.98)	1.48 (0.98)	1.57 (1.04)
Adjusted M (SE)	1.44 (0.13)	1.63 (0.11)	1.46 (0.10)	1.59 (0.10)
Sex effect	F(1, 325) = 0.01, p = .92, partial ƞ² = .01
Place effect	F(1, 325) = 2.01, p = .15, partial ƞ² = .01
Interaction effect	F(1, 325) = 0.10, p = .75, partial ƞ² = .01

Notes. Child age, mother’s age, country of birth, highest grade completed in school, primary language preference, household income, and total amount of hours they worked per week were control variables in ANCOVAs. PA = physical activity; ST = screen time; M = mean; SD = standard deviation; SE = standard error.

Discussion

Given the importance in maintaining a healthy lifestyle, this study sought to explore PA and ST of Mexican-heritage immigrant children in border colonias. Among our sample, less than half of participant mothers reported their neighborhood having a suitable place for children to play and be active. This is consistent with past literature finding a lack of PA resources in colonias communities (Federal Reserve Bank of Dallas, 2015) and with research in other immigrant communities where an increased risk for sedentary behaviors has been documented (Brewer & Kimbro, 2014), this number is strikingly low, and was consistent for parents of both boys and girls.

Physical Activity

Despite having relatively few places to be active in the community, participants estimated their children were active for more than 2 hours per day during the week. During the week, there was a significant two-way interaction effect between sex and neighborhood perceptions. When examining the mean active time for each group, boys’ active play time was roughly equal, regardless of the neighborhood having dedicated space to be active. Further, when mothers perceived active play space to exist, girls’ PA was similar to boys’ PA; however, when mothers perceived there was no play spaces, girls’ activity levels were significantly lower. Thus, the effects of neighborhood suitability for play seems to disproportionately affect girls. This may be related to gendered cultural expectations for boys and girls—whereby boys are more encouraged to engage in PA and are trusted to do so, regardless of the neighborhood environment. This is consistent with other studies suggesting the importance of dedicated built environments in promoting PA among girls (Santos et al., 2009).

Interestingly, this interaction effect was not significant on weekends, nor was the main effect for sex. However, there was a significant main effect related to the perception of having a place to be active. That is, when mothers perceived there to be an active play space, children were more active, regardless of sex. Together, these results point to the importance of dedicated play spaces for children, particularly girls, in promoting PA in colonias communities. In largely immigrant communities, resources for the development of dedicated play spaces may be limited. However, development of such spaces may have important implications for healthy habit development and long-term prevention of non-communicable conditions related to inactive lifestyles.

Screen Time

When examining weekday ST behaviors, a similar two-way sex and neighborhood environment interaction emerged. In this case, boys’ ST behaviors were again not significantly different, regardless of neighborhood. Further, the boys’ ST behaviors were roughly equivalent to those of girls’ in neighborhoods with few dedicated places to be active. However, girls in neighborhoods with places to be active had lower weekday ST than any other group. Thus, girls in communities with dedicated areas to be active were engaged in more PA and less ST, underscoring the importance of the built environment with respect to their healthy behaviors.

Limitations

It should be noted this study is limited by self-report bias. Mothers provided child behavior through self-report as well as their perception of physical activity places. Additionally, perception of physical activity places was assessed using a dichotomous question and did not take into account possible quality of space or distance to the physical activity space. Future research may wish to combine these perceptions with more objective measurements (Umstattd Meyer et al., 2020).

Conclusions

Children in immigrant and minority communities often face barriers to access PA opportunities and, therefore, are at risk for poor health associated with sedentary lifestyle behaviors. Our findings suggest the importance of dedicated spaces for promoting PA for children residing in colonias communities. While there was a significant place effect on weekend for all children’s PA, more complex dynamics emerged during the week. During the week, when parents are more likely to be working, significant two-way interactions existed with respect to both PA and ST. In both cases, having dedicated space in the neighborhood for activity improved girls’ overall health behaviors (i.e., reduced ST and increased PA). Given girls generally engage in less PA than boys, interventions creating safe, dedicated spaces for them to be active are particularly important. Thus, programming and interventions are needed for improving girls’ PA behaviors in predominantly immigrant communities.

Given the cultural and contextual nature of disparities noted in child PA, determining the associations between a mother’s perceptions of the neighborhood, child sex, and PA and ST are important. Specific to our understanding of Mexican-heritage immigrant communities, this study adds to the evidence and identifies how to address disparities in PA and ST behaviors. These results contribute to the health disparities literature by adding vital specificity, necessary for colonias tailored intervention efforts, for colonia communities and residents. Further, these colonias may typify health disparities and struggles of other new destination immigrant communities throughout the U.S. struggling to address health needs of a changing demographic (Lanesskog, 2018).

Footnotes

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Ethics Approval

Study was approved by the reverent IRB prior to the start of the study.

Consent to Participate

All participants gave informed consent prior to participation.

ORCID iD

Tyler Prochnow

Author Biographies

Tyler Prochnow is an Assistant Professor at Texas A&M University in the Department of Health & Kinesiology.

Andrew C. Pickett is an Assistant Professor of Sport Management at the University of South Dakota.

Luis Gómez is a Program Coordinator in the School of Public Health at Texas A&M University.

Joseph Sharkey is a Professor in the Department of Health Promotion and Community Health Sciences at Texas A&M University School of Public Health in College Station, Texas, and Founding Director of the Program for Research and Outreach-Engagement on Nutrition and Health Disparities Solutions.

M. Renée Umstattd Meyer is an Associate Dean for Research in the Robins College of Health and Human Science and Professor in the Department of Public Health at Baylor University.

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