Abstract
This review aims to understand everyday learning of older adults using mobile devices. Specifically, for both academic and practical implications, we wanted to know what theoretical perspectives researchers adopted and how mobile devices play a role in older adults’ informal learning. We analyzed 28 empirical studies (15 qualitative, 10 quantitative, and 3 mixed methods) that met our selection criteria. Our findings revealed that the studies used four theoretical frameworks to understand their learning: (a) technology acceptance theory, (b) experiential learning theory, (c) social cognitive theory, and (d) activity theory. We also identified six themes of older adults’ informal learning using mobile devices through key findings from the existing studies: (a) self-learning of health or medical knowledge, (b) affective and emotional dimensions, (c) ambivalent attitudes, (d) practical uses, (e) interpersonal and intergenerational communication, and (f) collaborative learning experience. We conclude this article with discussion for research and practice.
Mobile technologies are no longer a sole domain of younger generations. The number of Americans aged 65 years and older is projected to more than double from 49 million in 2016 to over 98 million by 2060, and the 65 and older age group’s share of the total population will rise to nearly 24% by 2060 (Administration for Community Living, 2018). Average U.S. life expectancy increased from 68 years in 1950 to 79 years in 2013, in large part due to the reduction in mortality at older ages (Mather, Jacobsen, & Pollard, 2015). This means that older adults aged 65 years and older are likely to be healthier and have more opportunities for education than previous generations. Among the older adults or populations, 46% own smartphones and their internet use and home broadband adoption have risen substantially (Pew Research Center, 2018). In addition, social media use has also increased, with 34% of older adults in the United States using social networking sites (SNS; Pew Research Center, 2017).
Mobile devices are tools that adults can use to engage in informal learning. Informal learning has been defined by many scholars. Coombs (1985) defines informal learning as “the spontaneous, unstructured learning that goes on daily in the home and neighborhood, behind the school and on the playing field, in the workplace, marketplace, library and museum, and through the various mass media” (p. 92). Golding (2011) wrote that “informal learning occurs through all kinds of activities in the daily lives of every person in a wide range of social contexts through families, workplace, communities, and leisure activities” (p. 104). Furthermore, Schugurensky (2000) used a taxonomy of informal learning based on a learner’s intentionality of their learning and consciousness about that learning experience. Three types of informal learning are self-directed learning—both intentional and conscious; incidental learning—unintentional and conscious; and tacit learning—unintentional and unconscious (Schugurensky, 2000). These definitions denote informal learning as any voluntary, self-paced learning occurring in various everyday situations. Mobile devices, which are one of the most easily accessible tools in daily life, may play a role in social learning.
Generally, older adults learn better in a learning environment that affords self-paced instruction and satisfies their various learning needs, particularly in unfamiliar situations (e.g., new technology learning) rather than rushing through a formal curriculum (Brockett, 1985). In the context of engaging in self-paced informal learning using mobile devices, the heterogeneous group of older adult learners can choose their learning medium and communication tools (Leen & Lang, 2013) because mobile devices allow learners to access, interact, research, and perform various tasks depending on their preferences on time and place of learning. In this sense, mobile devices provide a platform for sustainability across informal and lifelong learning contexts (Ng, 2013).
Although mobile devices are becoming popular and ubiquitous, the research focusing on their use for informal and lifelong learning has been minimal. Moreover, the existing studies on learning using mobile devices have often been associated with younger people. Previous research has addressed young adults’ mobile learning in formal and informal education settings (El-Hussein & Cronje, 2010; Selwyn, 2004). Relatively few studies have concerned the use of mobile devices for older adults’ informal learning. In terms of the research contents, existing studies have focused solely on the utilization of the devices such as accessibility, ease of use, or mobile device adoption among older adults (Díaz-Bossini & Moreno, 2014). However, researchers need to better understand how the informal learning of older adults in using mobile devices can be understood and what meaningful learning beyond functional uses occur through activities using mobile devices.
The purpose of this review was to understand the informal learning of older adults in using mobile devices both academically and practically. Through reviewing relevant studies, we sought to examine two questions: (a) What are the major theoretical perspectives contemporary studies adopted? and (b) How do mobile devices play a role in the informal learning of older adults? Our review shows the strengths and limitations of the extant literature and includes suggestions for future studies.
Methods
We conducted a literature review to identify the relevant literature and extract information on the informal learning of older adults in using mobile devices. In this section, we discuss the process of search and selection of our review and analytical strategies of the selected literature.
Search and Selection
Literature reviews should be made as transparent as possible to the readers by describing the methods for search, analysis, and the interpretation of the literature (Torraco, 2016). We conducted a literature search in the following international online databases: EBSCOhost, ScienceDirect, ProQuest, SAGE, and Taylor and Francis. We searched titles, keywords, and abstracts using combinations of several key terms related to the following three search categories: (a) older adult, (b) mobile device, and (c) learning. Specifically, we listed all the potential key subject terms we could identify (Torraco, 2016). Our search was conducted by using the following keywords: older adult, elderly, older people, mobile device, hand-held device, smartphone, and/or tablet; social media, social network, SNS, user-generated, user-created, or smartphone app; and learning, informal learning, or self-directed learning. The initial search yielded 287 publications.
To be included in this review, a publication met the following criteria: (a) appeared in a peer-reviewed journal, (b) written in English, and (c) published between 2005 and 2017. The start date of 2005 was chosen because along with expanding the wireless mobile telecommunications technology since 2005, data carrying ability and speeds have increased. These factors increased the popularity of mobile devices as tools for teaching and learning (Demirbilek, 2010; Reagle, 2012). Through the initial screening, out of the 287 articles, 118 were identified to be highly relevant to this research topic. The titles, keywords, and abstracts of the 118 articles were read and then screened based on two screening questions: (a) Is this study an empirical study including the population of people aged 50 and older? and (b) Does this study focus on one of the types of informal learning—self-directed, incidental, or tacit learning? According to the American Educational Research Association and American Psychological Association, empirical research is performed for the purpose of gaining knowledge by opting for direct or indirect means of observations or experiences, but not limited to, what are commonly called qualitative and quantitative methods (Duran et al., 2006; Hughes, Pennington, & Makris, 2012).
Studies focusing on health-related self-learning through mobile devices among older adults were included. Through a wide range of health-related daily activities using mobile devices, such as utilizing health-related smartphone applications or watching medical information video content and sharing health knowledge with the same age group, many older adults attempt to achieve self-determined health-related goals (Steinert, Haesner, Tetley, & Steinhagen-Thiessen, 2016). In this way, we regarded the studies focusing on mobile devices or smartphone applications for older adults’ health monitoring tool as one of the compelling sources for older adults’ informal learning. We excluded articles mainly focusing on elderly patients’ monitoring tools and policyholders’ managing tools by insurance carriers. In total, 28 articles were selected for inclusion.
Analytical Strategies
To keep track of relevant literature, we developed a matrix indicating the selected articles and their methods, findings, and methodological quality indicators (see Table 1; Torraco, 2016). The 28 publications were coded and tabulated regarding the use of mobile devices in support of older adults’ informal learning, using the techniques of inductive thematic analysis, which is “a process of coding the data without fitting into a preexisting coding frame, or the researcher’s analytic preconceptions,” to identify salient themes which seemed more appropriate for this literature review (Braun & Clarke, 2006, p. 83). The early round of coding was largely guided by the explicit definitions or descriptions of informal learning via mobile devices such as publication year, journal, and methodology. In addition to coding the 28 publications for general information, we also coded them for the following: key themes, purpose of study, guiding theory, learning types via mobile devices, and findings. To code guiding theories of the articles, we recorded any theory the researchers had employed explicitly or implicitly to describe the phenomenon of informal learning via mobile devices. What is more, we recorded the reference number, the participants’ characteristics of each study, data collection method including interview, focus group, focused ethnography, open-ended survey, open-ended discussion, observation, and field study on the coding sheet. To organize the selected articles to avoid replication, we exported each article to the RefWorks system that automatically labeled a certain number and checked replication. Finally, we summarized the key findings of each article.
Summary of 28 Studies.
Findings
We analyzed the selected articles to understand the informal learning of older adults in using mobile devices both academically and practically. Through reviewing relevant studies, we examined the major theoretical perspectives contemporary studies adopted and six themes of informal learning in using mobile devices. We also include the tables of the selected literature’s summary and the overview of the identified themes.
Overview of Research
Of the 28 empirical studies, 15 were qualitative, 10 were quantitative, 3 used mixed methods, and all were published in 20 different journals, representing multidisciplinary research. Nearly half the articles (n = 11) were published in technology, computers, social media, or cyber psychology-focused publications. Eight were found in educational gerontology, technological education, and educational psychology journals. Five were published in the field of gerontology and aging publications and four were published in health education, health promotion, medical, or nursing research publications. The four main theoretical frameworks used are (a) technology acceptance model or unified theory of acceptance and use of technology, (b) experiential learning theory, (c) social cognitive theory, and (d) activity theory.
Technology Acceptance Theory
The types of technology acceptance models used as theoretical frameworks include the following: Technology acceptance model (Davis, Bagozzi, & Warshaw, 1989), the senior technology acceptance and adoption model (Van Biljon & Renaud, 2008), and the unified theory of acceptance and use of technology (Venkatesh, Morris, Davis, & Davis, 2003). The main constructs of the technology acceptance model are perceived ease of use—the extent to which a person believes that using a technology is free of effort, perceived usefulness—the degree to which a person believes that using the particular technology would improve his or her quality of life, attitude toward using—an individual’s positive or negative feelings or appraisal about using technology, facilitating conditions—objective factors in the environments that can make technology usage easy, self-satisfaction—degree to which a product/service gives the user satisfaction with himself or herself or achievements, and cost tolerance—the willingness to afford the costs on specific products or services through considering one’s income and measuring the value of the product service (Venkatesh et al., 2003). These models were used to examine older adults’ technology acceptance in the quantitative studies. Particularly, five quantitative studies employed the technology acceptance model to shape their overall research (Barnard et al., 2013; Ginsburg et al., 2016; Ma et al., 2016; Ryu et al., 2009; Tsai et al., 2017). Based on the elements of technology acceptance—perceived ease of use and usefulness, facilitating conditions, self-satisfaction and cost tolerance—older adults decided to adopt and further use mobile devices for their informal learning.
Experiential Learning Theory
This theory describes learning as “the process whereby knowledge is created through the transformation of experience. Knowledge results from the combination of grasping and transforming experience” (Kolb, 1984, p. 41). Experiential learning accompanies specific emotions that can catalyze a person’s learning process. Along with Kolb’s (1984) experiential learning theory, many scholars (e.g., Beard & Wilson, 2002; Dirkx, 2001; Merriam, Caffarella, & Baumgartner, 2007) emphasized the importance of emotion in experiential learning because “the affective domain can be seen to provide the underlying foundation for all learning” (Beard & Wilson, 2002, p. 119). Several qualitative studies employed this theory to describe older adults’ particular learning experiences in which they went from adopting mobile devices to further utilizing mobile devices as their informal learning medium (Lindsay et al., 2007; Zhang et al., 2017).
Social Cognitive Theory
Bandura’s (1994) social cognitive theory addresses learning as interaction among personal factors, environmental factors, and behavior. This theory, which emphasizes the dynamic interplay among the factors and determines the adoption of innovation and the use of evolving information technologies with social networks has been employed in three qualitative studies (Gatti et al., 2017; Nahm et al., 2009; Tsai et al., 2015). Based on the three factors of older adults’ informal learning process—environmental, personal, and behavioral factors were analyzed in those articles. Environmental factors including support of family and friends; personal factors explaining the individual’s technology confidence, self-efficacy, desire to learn new technology, adventurousness using and learning technology; and the behavioral factor as an actual use of the mobile devices were adopted to analyze the theme relating to older adults’ social connection using mobile devices (Bandura, 1994, 2001; Gatti et al., 2017).
Activity Theory
Activity theory proposes that older adults are most satisfied when they remain involved in their social roles (Whitbourne & Whitbourne, 2014). In this theory, “the distinction between short-lived goal-directed action and durable, object-oriented activity is of central importance” (Engeström, 2000, p. 964). In particular, this theory shaped a few qualitative studies in terms of age and role satisfaction (Whitbourne & Whitbourne, 2014). For example, Heo and Lee (2013) applied activity theory to examine adults’ online informal learning, describing the seven main components of this theory—subjects, tools, objects, outcome, community, rules, and roles.
Six Themes: Informal Learning in Using Mobile Devices
Table 2 lists reviewed articles’ findings according to the six emerged themes that characterize older adults’ informal learning using mobile devices. They are (a) self-learning of health or medical knowledge, (b) affective and emotional dimensions, (c) ambivalent attitudes toward the use of technology, (d) practical uses, (e) interpersonal and intergenerational communication, and (f) collaborative learning experience. Below, we presented each theme with reference to those articles that examined them.
Overview of the Six Identified Themes of Older Adults’ Informal Learning Features.
Health-Related Self-Learning
Common findings across quantitative studies were consistent in supporting mobile device use for health-related self-learning or acquiring medical knowledge (Deng et al., 2014; Lee et al., 2017). According to Deng et al.’s (2014) quantitative study in China, older adults could fulfill their high needs for self-actualization through active participation in learning to use new mobile health applications that they had never used before. Lee et al. (2017) revealed an epistemic value of mobile health applications, which allows older adults to satisfy their desire for knowledge seeking in terms of their health concerns or interests. Qualitative findings supplemented quantitative findings on the great potential of mobile device use for health-related informal or self-directed learning (Lindsay et al., 2007; Nahm et al., 2009). In particular, through sharing health-related personal experiences on specific discussion boards or question and answer postings, older people who were experiencing medical issues were able to acquire medical tips from people who went through similar experiences (Hernandez-Encuentra et al., 2009; Steinert et al., 2016). Older adults were motivated to participate in their health-related self-learning when they wanted to acquire specific health-related knowledge (Nahm et al., 2009; Østensen et al., 2017).
Affective and Emotional Dimensions
Findings from the qualitative studies emphasized that affective and emotional dimensions were largely associated with facilitating older adults’ learning process using mobile devices (Ahmad et al., 2016; Østensen et al., 2017). According to Ahmad et al.’s (2016) qualitative study, which conducted interviews with 15 attendees of a smartphone learning workshop in Malaysia, mobile spiritual applications could meet older adults’ spiritual learning needs because people in later life are deemed to be more spiritually centered in the aging process. Østensen et al. (2017) described that older adults became regular online learners when they perceived their learning as a person-oriented and mindful process. Examples of affective and emotional dimensions on learning process included spiritual experience, meditation, religious ritual, and self-motivation by adopting mobile devices (Ahmad et al., 2016; Hernandez-Encuentra et al., 2009).
Ambivalent Attitudes
Both qualitative and quantitative findings showed that older adults adopted mobile devices for learning as long as they found the learning relevant to their lives, their privacy and security issues were addressed, they had access to resources that helped them understand their mobile devices better, and set up was easy (Hernandez-Encuentra et al., 2009; Ryu et al., 2009). However, many older adults demanded a precondition for using mobile devices. For example, certainty of improving independence and autonomy in their everyday life, reducing their technology anxiety, assurance of cybersecurity and privacy, helping for initial device setup, and easy access to continuous tutoring and instructional manuals were among those preconditions (Kisekka et al., 2013; Ryu et al., 2009). According to Ryu et al. (2009), if novice older online users perceive participating in mobile learning as a beneficial, easy, and fun process, they are more likely to become regular online learners. Both older adults who currently use mobile devices for their informal learning and who do not use mobile devices were concerned about disclosing their private information and were confused about operating privacy settings on an SNS (Kisekka et al., 2013; Xie et al., 2012).
Practical Use
Five studies highlighted practical usage of mobile devices among older adults, for instance, acquiring financial resources (Tsai et al., 2017), learning computer language (Gatti et al., 2017), memory enhancement practice (Myhre et al., 2017), and leisure purpose (Hernandez-Encuentra et al., 2009; Ryu et al., 2009). According to Tsai et al.’s (2017) qualitative research that interviewed 21 older tablet computer owners, novice older users expanded their usage of mobile applications in everyday activities (e.g., shopping, Facebook, online banking, checking financial accounts, and Bible study) through the exploratory and self-directed learning process. Myhre et al. (2017) showed the efficacy of learning and using an SNS (i.e., Facebook) to maintain or enhance older adults’ working memory. However, very few qualitative researchers have considered cognitive functions associated with age and its relation to older adults’ informal learning. A few studies highlighted that electronic games on mobile devices were considered more suitable for language learning, computer literacy, and improving communication skills (Demirbilek, 2010).
Interpersonal and Intergenerational Communication
Both qualitative and quantitative findings showed the value of mobile device use for the social aspects of learning. For instance, using mobile devices and accessing SNS made older adults feel informed socially (Amaro et al., 2016; Delello & McWhorter, 2017; Harley & Fitzpatrick, 2009; Lindsay et al., 2007). For instance, older adults were able to build a sense of connectedness and further improve the friendships of their preexisting social connections (Delello & McWhorter, 2017; Lindsay et al., 2007). According to Delello and McWhorter’s (2017) mixed-methods single case study, older adults who participated in a 6-week iPad training program noted that the device allowed them to find their childhood friends, connect with family members, and engage in their retirement community. Lindsay et al. (2007) conducted interviews with nine older men with heart disease and revealed that older adults who had a certain disease were able to seek support from others who had similar diseases using online communication tools. Findings from the qualitative studies emphasized that not only understanding the social aspects of learning via mobile devices for older adults but also understanding why mobile devices come to be meaningful within the social context of older adults’ lives is important (Harley & Fitzpatrick, 2009).
Findings from the qualitative studies revealed how mobile devices can be an effective trigger for intergenerational communication (Amaro et al., 2016; Harley & Fitzpatrick, 2009). Amaro et al. (2016) described how grandparents and grandchildren interacted during participating in the joint media engagement sessions which is collaborative use of mobile devices between grandparents and grandchildren. Harley and Fitzpatrick (2009) described the case study of how an older adult YouTuber created content that expanded generational understanding. Studies also showed how older adults use mobile devices in a predominantly youth-oriented medium to share their candid thoughts. While several qualitative studies mentioned that using mobile devices increased the sense of connectedness for older adults, none of the quantitative studies further mentioned about intergenerational communication using mobile devices.
Collaborative Learning
One of the emergent themes in the reviewed articles was a great potential for collaborative learning. Both qualitative and quantitative findings emphasized that the use of mobile devices would provide not only intergenerational or social communication but also offer collaborative learning experiences for older adult learners. Findings showed that older adults who use mobile devices were able to share information and their feelings, develop their knowledge, and expand their social relationships by engaging in collaborative activities such as participating in discussion forum posts, friending and commenting on other users’ video content, and collaborating with other online content creators (Gatti et al., 2017; Harley & Fitzpatrick, 2009; Nahm et al., 2009). According to Harley and Fitzpatrick’s (2009) case study, the online place functions as expanding reciprocal learning and co-creation content between older and younger generations. Harley and Fitzpatrick (2009) emphasized this collaborative endeavor, the older video blogger made through feedback from the viewers in terms of technical advice, content-related comments, and personal responses. Gatti et al. (2017) revealed that during online training sessions, older adults were in favor of collaborative learning in small groups with other participants who shared the same difficulties in learning new technology. In this way, qualitative findings elaborated more on the quantitative findings providing with a profound understanding of the older adults’ learning needs using mobile devices.
Discussion
We conducted a review of empirical studies on the use of mobile devices for older adults’ learning published in several journals. Beyond a general overview of existing literature, this review contributes to providing researchers and practitioners not only a comprehensive profile of the publications including major theoretical frameworks but also an understanding of older adults’ learning experiences using mobile devices in their daily lives. Throughout the six emerging themes, our findings contribute to a holistic academic understanding of older adults’ informal learning using mobile devices. Moreover, educational ways are also suggested for these older adults to learn through practices.
Theoretical and Academic Implications
The theoretical frameworks that were used only give a partial picture of the informal learning that occurs for older adults using mobile devices. Older adults’ mobile learning has been studied mainly from a cognitive learning perspective in which learners’ contextual understandings has been largely overlooked (Kim & Merriam, 2010). Four theoretical frameworks in this review emphasized that learning cannot be understood only through an individuals’ cognitive abilities. Specifically, older adults’ learning experiences constantly interact with the learners’ situational condition. In technology acceptance theory, actual usage of mobile devices and further utilization for learning among older adults largely depend on ‘facilitating conditions’ which are the physical structure where learning occurs or resources of mobile learning affected how they learn. Thus, facilitating conditions and resource availability may be a potential solution to promote mobile learning for older adults (Ma et al., 2016). Social cognitive theory which accounts for self-efficacy, confidence, and desire to learn particularly relates to how motivated people engage in self-directed learning (Merriam et al., 2007). In this theory, studying the interaction of older individuals’ behavior, cognitive and personal factors, and environmental events, such as analyzing older adults’ social connection via mobile devices, including support of family and friends, can give a more comprehensive understanding of how adults learn. Activity theory can be useful for examining older adults’ learning activities in a web-based space as a psychological and multidisciplinary framework (Engeström, 2001). Because learning can be seen as a social practice (Bandura, 2012), activity theory has focused on examining diverse human practices where subjects (older adult learners) have relations with objectives (learning objectives) and tools (mobile devices as learning tools; Engeström, 2000; Kim, 2014; Olson, Kim, & Hwang, 2017). Thus, in the adult education field, it is further necessary to understand how older adults’ informal mobile learning interact with the various learning situations in terms of social interaction, learning tools or medium, and online learning culture (Kim & Merriam, 2010).
The six themes we found were categorized into three dimensions of learning in general—a cognitive, an emotional and psychodynamic, and a social and societal dimension (Illeris, 2004). We could incorporate the themes of self-learning of health or medical knowledge and practical uses into the cognitive dimensions of learning. For instance, cognitive dimensions of learning related to older adult learners’ acquisition of motor skills and knowledge on how they utilize the mobile devices for their informal learning. In addition, we could tie the theme of affective and emotional aspects into emotional and psychodynamic dimensions of learning since all the learning processes are transmitted by “the learners’ psychological energy, feelings, emotions, attitudes, and motivations” (Illeris, 2004, p. 18). For example, while technology anxiety inhibited beginners from adopting the mobile devices, positive emotions from mobile learning experiences encouraged older adults to use the mobile devices on a regular basis.
Moreover, our thematic categories of interpersonal and intergenerational communication and collaborative learning experience could also be incorporated into societal dimensions of learning. Older adult learners could remain engaged with social life or have closer ties with younger family members employing mobile devices. Importantly, older adults’ attitude toward adopting mobile devices and informal learning were influenced by the interaction between the instructors. For instance, younger instructors or family members who have an aging stereotype may give a negative perception of mobile devices to older adult learners. These tripartite dimensions of learning (Illeris, 2004) may constantly interact with an older individual’s cultural, economic, and political situations where they engage in informal learning. Their learning environment inevitably influences older adults’ learning potentials, particularly how older adults interact with the younger instructors or their younger family members in broader societal dynamics including positive or negative attitudes toward older adult learners.
According to our findings and previous studies, it is suggested that older adults are highly motivated and actively participate in mobile learning, despite generally with fewer experiences of advanced technologies than younger adults (Chen, Kim, Moon, & Merriam, 2008; O’Brien & Rogers, 2013). However, often younger people, even professionals and educators who work with older adults, may implicitly hold aging stereotypes that older adults’ learning motivation has been undermined by age-related decline in physical, cognitive, and socioemotional processes (Blancato & Ponder, 2015). Thus, in everyday technology interaction, people who interact with older adults may facilitate or inhibit their informal mobile learning. This may help older adult learners increase their familiarity with mobile devices and optimize their everyday learning experiences.
Practical Implications
Age-Specified Curriculum
Our findings showed several preconditions for older adults to participate in daily learning activities using mobile devices. According to our findings, although many older adults expressed a positive attitude toward the use of technology, they are still wary because of technology anxiety, privacy protection, and insufficient emotional and technological supports. In short, older adults need technological and emotional support from friends and family when interacting with technology. Thus, educators or instructors should consider including the specific content to reduce older adults’ mental load in mobile learning (Zheng, 2013), such as spending more time to explain the basic concept of mobile devices itself.
This study found that mobile learning needs and wants among older people vary by their generations. The older population encompasses all adults from the Silent Generation, born in 1945 or before, into the first half of the Baby Boomers, born in 1946 to 1955. With the Internet-savvy Baby Boomers reaching older age, future research will have to differentiate the Baby Boomer learners’ characteristics from the Silent Generation. As numbers of online community members grow among the Baby Boomer generation (Leist & Leist, 2013), considering dividing the older population age subgroups into young-old (65 to 74 years), middle-old (75 to 84 years), and old-old (85 years and older) groups, who may have considerably different habits of technology use, are certainly worth investigating (Lim, Smith, & Kim, 2016). For the different characteristics of age-subgroups such as old-old adults who are less likely to have knowledge about an initial setting of mobile devices or opening SNS accounts and more likely to be concerned about technology anxiety and privacy disclosure should be considered when designing curriculum. Older adults in different age subgroups can then select learning tools and medium based on their different levels of general technology experience, technological sophistication, and ease of use.
Mobile Health Education in Practices
This study revealed that the main purpose of participation in mobile learning among older adults was to learn about health-related knowledge. More than half of the studies considered in this review mentioned older adults’ interests in using mobile devices as their health-related learning. One prominent learning goal using mobile devices among older adults was reading smartphone applications, blogs, and SNS to help with diagnosis, or learn about prevention or treatment of their condition or disorder (Lee et al., 2017; Steinert et al., 2016). In this regard, the adult educators in health education, health promotion, medical, or nursing areas need to consider how mobile devices promote older adults’ health-related informal learning in various ways. For example, an online discussion board that is facilitated by doctors, nurses, or health professionals would enable older adults to receive medical advice, as well as exchange lived experiences or medical tips with other participants. Hence, older adults would expand their scope of mobile health learning using their mobile devices.
Suggestions for Future Research
This review also showed some theoretical frameworks on both qualitative and quantitative studies concerning older adults’ informal learning using mobile devices. However, quantitative studies with concrete theoretical frameworks have been few. While using quite diverse theories in qualitative studies, quantitative research mainly adapted technology acceptance theory or relevant theories focusing on predicting older adult learners’ intention to use and accept technologies. Even though those theories enabled adult educators to understand the patterns of older adults’ intention to use technological devices and engage in mobile learning, further research that focuses on examining older adults’ participation in mobile learning that varies in levels of their technological sophistication is necessary. Furthermore, a sociocultural learning perspective like activity theory, which is useful to thoroughly understand their learning phenomenon beyond learning at the individual level by emphasizing meaningful contexts including technologies as a key mediation for learning, will be actively adopted in future studies (Engeström, 2001; Kaptelinin & Nardi, 2006; Kim, 2014).
More than half of the studies considered in this review focused on the older adults’ feelings or attitudes toward mobile devices or their purpose of informal learning using mobile devices in sporadic use or until entry level of usage. For example, older adults’ intention to use smartphone applications, SNS, or video user-generated content and some barriers that should be dealt with for frequent use were discussed (Ginsburg et al., 2016; Kisekka et al., 2013; Nguyen et al., 2015). However, there seems to be more room for future qualitative research to examine specific stories or cases of older adults’ use of technology on a regular basis. For instance, adult education scholars should look at how older adults use smartphone applications, SNS, and user-generated content in different cultural contexts for their informal learning on a regular basis. In this way, further qualitative research that focuses on exploring how older adults engage in mobile learning using various up-to-date devices and applications can make a clear contribution to resolving the criticism of informal learning using mobile devices for older adults. We suggest that further investigation of older adults’ mobile learning in various settings may be useful. Research that looks at older adults living in urban and rural areas, with varying levels of health and mobility, would provide more thorough knowledge on how informal learning using mobile devices benefits diverse older adults.
Conclusion
Mobile devices provide various daily learning opportunities for everybody. However, maintaining a daily learning habit using mobile devices is a challenging endeavor that requires both personal efforts and social support, especially for older adults. This review provided evidence that both researchers and practitioners in the field of older adult education need to understand what major theoretical perspectives are used in the contemporary studies and how mobile devices play a role in older adults’ informal learning. Higher quality empirical studies with stronger theoretical rigor and age-specified online curriculum, particularly mobile health education, are necessary for future research.
Footnotes
Authors’ Note
This article is based on a paper presented at the Adult Education Research Conference, June 8, 2018, at the University of Victoria, British Columbia, Canada.
Declaration of Conflicting Interests
The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.
Funding
The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.
