The interactive-compensatory model of reading was developed primarily to explain developmental and individual differences in the use of context to facilitate word recognition during reading. The work leading up to the model is summarized, and more recent empirical studies are described. One major implication derived from these studies and other recent research is that the Goodman-Smith psycholinguistic "guessing game" is an inaccurate conceptualization of individual differences in context use. When a context is adequately instantiated, less-skilled readers utilize context to facilitate word recognition just as much, if not more, than skilled readers.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
Allington, R. L. (1978). Effects of contextual constraints upon rate and accuracy. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 46, 1318.
2.
Allington, R. L., & Fleming, J. T. (1978). The misreading of high-frequency words. Journal of Special Education, 12, 417–421.
3.
Allington, R. L., & Strange, M. (1977). Effects of grapheme substitutions in connected text upon reading behaviors. Visible Language, 11, 285–297.
4.
Andolina, C. (1980). Syntactic maturity and vocabulary richness of learning disabled children at four age levels. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 13, 372–377.
5.
Batey, O., & Sonnenschein, S. (1981). Reading deficits in learning disabled children. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 2, 237–246.
6.
Becker, C. A. (1982). The development of semantic context effects: Two processes or two strategies?. Reading Research Quarterly, 17, 482–502.
7.
Biemiller, A. (1970). The development of the use of graphic and contextual information as children learn to read. Reading Research Quarterly, 6, 75–96.
8.
Biemiller, A. (1977-1978). Relationships between oral reading rates for letters, words, and simple text in the development of reading achievement. Reading Research Quarterly, 13, 223–253.
9.
Biemiller, A. (1979). Changes in the use of graphic and contextual information as functions of passage difficulty and reading achievement level. Journal of Reading Behavior, 11, 307–319.
10.
Bradley, L., & Bryant, P. (1983). Categorizing sounds and learning to read—a causal connection. Nature, 301, 419–421.
11.
Bransford, J. D., & Johnson, M. K. (1973). Consideration of some problems in comprehension. In W. G. Chase (Ed.), Visual information processing (pp. 383–438). New York: Academic Press.
12.
Bransford, J., Stein, B., & Vye, N. (1982). Helping students learn how to learn from written texts. In M. Singer (Ed.), Competent reader, disabled reader: Research and application (pp. 141–150). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
13.
Brown, A. (1981). Metacognition: The development of selective attention strategies for learning from texts. In M. Kamil (Ed.), 30th Yearbook of the National Reading Conference (pp. 21–43). Clemson, NC: National Reading Conference.
14.
Calfee, R., Lindamood, P., & Lindamood, C. (1973). Acoustic-phonetic skills and reading—kindergarten through twelfth grade. Journal of Educational Psychology, 64, 293–298.
15.
Carr, T. (1981). Building theories of reading ability: On the relation between individual differences in cognitive skills and reading comprehension. Cognition, 9, 73–113.
16.
Cohen, A. S. (1974-1975). Oral reading errors of first grade children taught by a code emphasis approach. Reading Research Quarterly, 10, 615–650.
17.
Coomber, J. E. (1972, September). A psycholinguistic analysis of oral reading errors made by good, average, and poor readers (Tech. Rep. No. 232). Madison: Wisconsin Research and Development Center, University of Wisconsin.
18.
DiVesta, F., Hayward, K., & Orlando, V. (1979). Developmental trends in monitoring text for comprehension. Child Development, 50, 97–105.
19.
Doehring, D. G. (1976). Acquisition of rapid reading responses. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 41, (2, Serial No. 165).
20.
Downing, J. (1980). Learning to read with understanding. In C. M. McCullough (Ed.), Persistent problems in reading education (pp. 163–178). Newark, DE: International Reading Association.
21.
Ehrlich, S. (1981). Children's word recognition in prose context. Visible Language, 15, 219–244.
22.
Fox, B., & Routh, D. (1980). Phonemic analysis and severe reading disability. Journal of Psycholinguistic Research, 9, 115–119.
23.
Garner, R., & Reis, R. (1981). Monitoring and resolving comprehension obstacles: An investigation of spontaneous text lookbacks among upper-grade good and poor comprehenders. Reading Research Quarterly, 16, 569–582.
24.
Goodman, K. (1965). A linguistic study of cues and miscues in reading. Elementary English, 42, 639–643.
25.
Goodman, K. (1976). Reading: A psycholinguistic guessing game. In H. Singer & R. Ruddell (Eds.), Theoretical models and processes of reading (pp. 497–508). Newark, DE: International Reading Association.
26.
Juel, C. (1980). Comparison of word identification strategies with varying context, word type, and reader skill. Reading Research Quarterly, 15, 358–376.
27.
LaBerge, D., & Samuels, S. (1974). Toward a theory of automatic information processing in reading. Cognitive Psychology, 6, 293–323.
28.
Lachman, R., Lachman, J., & Butterfield, E. (1979). Cognitive psychology and information processing: An introduction.Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
29.
Lesgold, A., & Resnick, L. (1982). How reading difficulties develop: Perspectives from a longitudinal study. In J. Das, R. Mulcahey, & A. Wall (Eds.), Theory and research in learning disabilities (pp. 155–187). New York: Plenum.
30.
Levin, J. (1973). Inducing comprehension in poor readers: A test of a recent model. Journal of Educational Psychology, 65, 19–24.
31.
Lewkowicz, N. (1980). Phonemic awareness training: What to teach and how to teach it. Journal of Educational Psychology, 72, 686–700.
32.
Liberman, I., & Shankweiler, D. (1979). Speech, the alphabet, and teaching to read. In L. Resnick & P. Weaver (Eds.), Theory and practice of early reading (Vol. 2, pp. 109–132). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
33.
Menyuk, P., & Flood, J. (1981). Linguistic competence, reading, writing problems and remediation. Bulletin of the Orton Society, 31, 13–28.
34.
Merrill, E., Sperber, R., & McCauley, C. (1981). Differences in semantic encoding as a function of reading comprehension skill. Memory & Cognition, 9, 618–624.
35.
Meyer, B., Brandt., D., & Bluth, G. (1980). Use of top-level structure in text: Key for reading comprehension of ninth-grade students. Reading Research Quarterly, 16, 72–103.
36.
Mitchell, D. (1982). The process of reading: A cognitive analysis of fluent reading and learning to read.New York: John Wiley.
37.
Neely, J. (1977). Semantic priming and retrieval from lexical memory: Roles of inhibitionless spreading activation and limited-capacity attention. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 106, 226–254.
38.
Paris, S., & Myers, M. (1981). Comprehension monitoring, memory, and study strategies of good and poor readers. Journal of Reading Behavior, 13, 5–22.
39.
Pearson, P., & Camperell, K. (1981). Comprehension of text structures. In J. T. Gutherie (Ed.), Comprehension and teaching (pp. 27–55). Newark, DE: International Reading Association.
40.
Perfetti, C., Goldman, S., & Hogaboam, T. (1979). Reading skill and the identification of words in discourse context. Memory & Cognition, 7, 273–282.
41.
Perfetti, C., & Lesgold, A. (1977). Discourse comprehension and sources of individual differences. In M. Just & P. Carpenter (Eds.), Cognitive processes in comprehension, (pp. 141–183). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
42.
Perfetti, C., & Lesgold, A. (1979). Coding and comprehension in skilled reading and implications for reading instruction. In L. B. Resnick & P. Weaver (Eds.), Theory and practice of early reading, (pp. 57–84). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
43.
Perfetti, C., & Roth, S. (1981). Some of the interactive processes in reading and their role in reading skill. In A. Lesgold & C. Perfetti (Eds.), Interactive processes in reading, (pp. 269–297). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
44.
Posner, M., & Snyder, C. (1975a). Attention and cognitive control. In R. Solso (Ed.), Information processing and cognition: The Loyola symposium, (pp. 55–84). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
45.
Posner, M., & Synder, C. (1975b). Facilitation and inhibition in the processing of signals. In P.M.A. Rabbitt & S. Dornic (Eds.), Attention and performance (pp. 669–682). New York: Academic Press.
46.
Raynor, K. (1978). Eye movements in reading and information processing. Psychological Bulletin, 85, 618–660.
47.
Richardson, E., DiBenedetto, B., & Adler, A. (1982). Use of the decoding skills test to study differences between good and poor readers. In K. Gadow & I. Bialer (Eds.), Advances in learning and behavioral disabilities (Vol. 1, pp. 25–74). Greenwich, CT: JAI Press.
48.
Rumelhart, D. E. (1977). Toward an interactive model of reading. In S. Dornic (Ed.), Attention and performance VI, (pp. 573–603). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
49.
Schvaneveldt, R., Ackerman, B., & Semlear, T. (1977). The effect of semantic context on children's word recognition. Child Development, 48, 612–616.
50.
Schwantes, F. (1981). Effect of story context on children's ongoing word recognition. Journal of Reading Behavior, 13, 305–311.
51.
Schwantes, F. (1982). Text readability level and developmental differences in context effects. Journal of Reading Behavior, 14, 4–12.
52.
Schwantes, F., Boesl, S., & Ritz, E. (1980). Children's use of context in word recognition: A psycholinguistic guessing game. Child Development, 51, 730–736.
53.
Schwartz, R., & Stanovich, K. (1981). Flexibility in the use of graphic and contextual information by good and poor readers. Journal of Reading Behavior, 13, 263–269.
54.
Semel, E., & Wiig, E. (1975). Comprehension of syntactic structures and critical verbal elements by children with learning disabilities. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 8, 53–58.
55.
Siler, E. R. (1973-1974). The effects of syntactic and semantic constraints on the oral reading performance of second and fourth graders. Reading Research Quarterly, 9, 603–621.
56.
Simpson, G., & Lorsbach, T. (1983). The development of automatic and conscious components of contextual facilitation. Child Development, 54, 760–772.
57.
Simpson, G., Lorsbach, T., & Whitehouse, D. (1983). Encoding and contextual components of word recognition in good and poor readers. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 35, 161–171.
58.
Singer, M., & Crouse, J. (1981). The relationship of context-use skills to reading: A case for an alternative experimental logic. Child Development, 52, 1326–1329.
59.
Smiley, S., Oakley, D., Worthen, D., Campione, J., & Brown, A. (1977). Recall of thematically relevant material by adolescent good and poor readers as a function of written versus oral presentation. Journal of Educational Psychology, 69, 381–387.
60.
Smith, F. (1971). Understanding reading.New York: Holt, Reinhart & Winston.
61.
Stanovich, K. (1980). Toward an interactive-compensatory model of individual differences in the development of reading fluency. Reading Research Quarterly, 16, 32–71.
62.
Stanovich, K. (1982a). Individual differences in the cognitive processes of reading I: Word decoding. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 15, 485–493.
63.
Stanovich, K. (1982b). Individual differences in the cognitive processes of reading II: Text-level processes. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 15, 549–554.
64.
Stanovich, K. (1982c). Word recognition skill and reading ability. In M. Singer (Ed.), Competent reader, disabled reader: Research and application, (pp. 81–102). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
65.
Stanovich, K., Cunningham, A., & Feeman, D. (in press). The relationship between early reading acquisition and word decoding with and without context: A longitudinal study of first-grade children. Journal of Educational Psychology.
66.
Stanovich, K., West, R., (1983). On priming by a sentence context. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 112, 1–36.
67.
Stanovich, K., West, R., & Feeman, D. (1981). A longitudinal study of sentence context effects in second-grade children: Tests of an interactive-compensatory model. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 32, 185–199.
68.
Strange, M. (1979). The effect of orthographic anomalies upon reading behavior. Journal of Reading Behavior, 11, 153–161.
69.
Vellutino, F. (1979). Dyslexia: Theory and research.Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
70.
Vogel, S. (1974). Syntactic abilities in normal and dyslexic children. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 7, 103–109.
71.
Weber, R. (1970). A linguistic analysis of first-grade reading errors. Reading Research Quarterly, 5, 427–451.
72.
West, R., & Stanovich, K. (1978). Automatic contextual facilitation in readers of three ages. Child Development, 49, 717–727.
73.
West, R., Stanovich, K., Feeman, D., & Cunningham, A. (1983). The effect of sentence context on word recognition in second- and sixth-grade children. Reading Research Quarterly, 19, 6–15.
74.
Whaley, J., & Kibby, M. (1981). The relative importance of reliance on intraword characteristics and interword constraints for beginning reading achievement. Journal of Educational Research, 74, 315–320.
