A Critical Race Theory of Psychology as Praxis: Proposing and Utilizing Principles of PsyCrit

Racism is endemic to society

A racial realist perspective contends that racism is ordinary and endemic to the United States of America (Bell, 1991). Its ordinariness means it has historically been insufficiently addressed, and its endemic nature means that it permeates all systems and is likely a permanent part of the United States fabric (Delgado & Stefancic, 2017). It is precisely its permanence and the United States of America’s consistent and enduring failure to eradicate it that makes racism, and its associated harms (e.g., intergenerational trauma, racism-based stress, and individual racist incident-based trauma), such critical issues to address. Black people will always face racism in this country; thus, it is our ethical duty as psychologists to always work toward ameliorating the inequities it causes.

When racism is conceptualized within psychology, it is often with an individualized lens, which fails to account for the psychological constructs attached to systemic racism (Adams & Salter, 2011). In addition, it is conceptualized as a variable within a set of descriptors for a sample, wherein it represents a difference along which to disaggregate groups within a sample but is often not attached to a system of power or privilege. Viewing race and racism through a realist lens would allow for consistency in fundamental assumptions, including, but not limited to, understanding racism as endemic in United States culture and society (Anderson et al., 2022). Racial realism is a conceptualization of racism as an enduring, permanent part of the United States fabric (Bell, 1991). While some have decried race as irrelevant or racism as a dwindling foe, racial realists emphasize wary observation of the ways racism manifests in the human experience,

To do one’s due diligence as a racial realist psychologist, one must be vigilant to the many ways in which experiences with race and of racism can manifest in the experiences and lives of those for whom we conduct research, assessment, and intervention. Thus, answering pivotal questions about racism is impossible without a precise understanding of its pervasive, systemic, and endemic nature.

Identity-consciousness and reflexivity

Reflexivity is an expected practice in many qualitative methods in the social sciences, yet it is not commonly covered in many advanced methods courses in psychology. As psychology becomes more interdisciplinary, its researchers would benefit from familiarizing themselves with the practice. Lazard and McAvoy (2020):

“Reflexivity is a form of critical thinking which aims to articulate the contexts that shape the processes of doing research and subsequently the knowledge produced. The point of it is to map the implications, possibilities, and limitations afforded by approaching the study of a topic in a particular way.” -p. 160

Identity-consciousness is a subset of reflexivity, in which scholars acknowledge how their identities—and the associated experiences with privilege, power, and oppression—might operate in their work. Consideration of positionality is a cornerstone of reflexive science because it allows researchers to acknowledge that they bring the context in which they operate as well as their humanity to their work (Dogson, 2019; Mitchell et al., 2018). Per Berger (2015):

“Researchers need to increasingly focus on self-knowledge and sensitivity; better understand the role of the self in the creation of knowledge; carefully self-monitor the impact of their biases, beliefs, and personal experiences on their research; and maintain the balance between the personal and the universal.” p. 220

In psychological science, scholars aim for appropriate and ethical separation between self and subject. However, taken at its most extreme, this goal can lead scientists to believe that they are conducting “positionless science” when they have not sufficiently addressed their implicit biases or gaps in knowledge to make this claim (Adams & Salter, 2011). When it comes to individuals with considerable social power (i.e., whiteness, maleness, and educational attainment) investigating the circumstances or experiences of those with less social power (e.g., economic marginalization, queerness, and displacement due to war), oversights related to implicit biases, for example, have the potential to do great harm. PsyCrit would have all researchers in psychology engage in specific efforts toward reflexivity, positionality, and identity-consciousness.

Avoid reproducing dominant paradigms

U.S. culture is heavily loaded with dominant paradigms infused with racialized value systems. These value systems are present in many unexpected places. For example, when a person says they are looking for a home in a “safe” or “good” neighborhood, some immediately envision an all-white suburban neighborhood. This imaginary experience is not an accident: decades of real estate marketing, school policy, loan practices, and media messaging about what makes a “good, safe” neighborhood is racialized, with whiteness set atop as an aspirational goal (Johnson & Shapiro, 2013). As dominant paradigms of white supremacy and anti-Black racism are present in myriad spaces and places, psychologists must examine how whiteness has been operationalized as a benchmark for success and a measure of how “good” something is. Responsible research grounded in PsyCrit must consider the experiences of people of color as whole and valid. Most importantly, examining the constructs under investigation in any given study for value systems or paradigms for inherent racial bias or cultural loading is crucial.

Resist generalization

This approach also recommends against broadly generalizing research findings beyond the specific or local contexts that were studied. There is merit in recognizing racialized psychological experiences of people of color as unique to those populations. Any discussion of racialized stressors or resiliency factors that aims to strip those experiences of their racialized component for the sake of comparing them to related yet different generalized constructs dilutes the power of that discussion. Take for example, a participatory study investigating the resiliency of Vietnamese immigrant families who relocated to predominantly white cities in the U.S. following the American War in Vietnam. Such a project does not need to conclude with a discussion that generalized the results to other Asian immigrant communities. PsyCrit would encourage authors to think critically about their research questions and the purpose of their research. An anti-oppressive and participatory study might instead conclude with focused recommendations to serve the community that was the focus of the study, instead of generalizing broadly across ethnic groups.

Refuse whiteness as a human standard

Throughout post-colonial history, social science research has often been constructed with whiteness as the norm. Critical race theorists have invited us to view “whiteness as property” that, when possessed, gives these individuals material and social privileges that raise their position in power and contribute to the racial hierarchy in our current society (Harris, 1995). These material privileges may include schools with more funding in neighborhoods that have historically excluded Black families. The accumulated wealth in such communities can support and promote the mental and physical health of those who live there (Baffoe et al., 2014; Harris, 1995). In the context of psychology, whiteness has often been considered as a human standard of behavior, emotion, or cognition, against which the actions, feelings, and thoughts of other groups are compared. As mentioned above, these comparisons fuel the pathologization of people of color. For example, in educational practice, this pattern manifests as the systemic over-referral of children of color to special education programs and suspensions (Skiba 2012; Sprague et al., 2013). Thus, in psychology, white individuals have the benefit of being seen as a “standard,” and that unquestionably has benefit.

Highlight voices and provide opportunities for counter-storytelling

Uplifting voices and providing opportunities for counter-storytelling provide insight into how Black adolescents are growing up and what influences their psychosocial development. Racial discrimination impacts Black youth and adolescents more than it does Black adults, because they presumably have fewer tools at their disposal to combat these occurrences. Parents and families play a pivotal, protective role in arming Black youth with these tools. Utilizing PsyCrit can allow us to understand Black parents’ experiences with racial stress and trauma and how this may influence their adolescents’ psychosocial development and identity formation (e.g., Anderson & Stevenson, 2019).

Anti-essentialism and intersectionality

Anti-essentialism and intersectionality are a perspective that acknowledges that social identities do not exist in silos, instead, they compound with one another to create instances of multiplying privilege or oppression. In psychological research, race-related experiences are often generalized across socioeconomic strata, gender differences, ethnic groups, and cultural differences. In short, groups are often treated as monolithic, which presumes a lack of meaningful within-group differences. Employing anti-essentialist and intersectional frameworks allows us to capture the nuance in family ecology, where that rich detail may be lost with another interpretive framework.

PsyCrit as a lens for clinical evaluation: Racism is endemic to society

All parents within our five families spoke of prior experience with racial discrimination. They spoke of times from their childhood, workplace, and even recent uncomfortable experiences their children witnessed. Their experiences ranged from overt racism to daily microaggressions.

“Even though there were barriers to them, you know, maybe getting a job at a hospital or something like that. They made their own way. And so that persistence is, you know, important for him to know about and stuff like that.” Kathryn

In this quote, Kathryn alludes to how racism has effectively excluded Black people from certain positions and status levels. Her acknowledgement of this reinforces the idea that psychology must consider the historically pervasive system of racism that continues to impact people of color throughout the U.S. PsyCrit demands that psychology begin considering racism as a system and a force, despite the challenges faced in measuring it. Ignoring its permanence and pervasiveness only contributes to the status quo of white normativity. The narratives from these parents highlight different yet important tenets of racial socialization. Kathryn touches on preparation for bias as she mentions the barriers for Black Americans in our society. Interestingly enough, she also points out the importance of resilience, a trait that typifies the Black experience. PsyCrit helps us to understand this by allowing a more in-depth exploration of the Black experience without comparing it to or utilizing a white perspective.

Neither Black experiences nor white normativity can be explored without acknowledging that racism is built into the infrastructure of America. The pervasiveness of racism undoubtedly impacts the health and wellbeing of Black adolescents, as it does all Black people. Our analyses depicted the generational concerns for parents and their children regarding discrimination. Though it manifested differently between families, it is a persistent stressor for Black people. PsyCrit enables a critical examination of environment and invites a perspective that centers these unique challenges without enforcing generational, normative views on evaluating racial discrimination. For example, Regina describes concerns over her daughter’s inability to regulate her emotions and how her daughter’s troubles with emotion regulation may be exacerbated in racial encounters:

“I mean, Martha gets smart with her replies. Right. So, it’s like, I don’t know, it’s hard. So, she has to, I have to control her attitude and her emotions first. ’Cause even if they’re being like, racial to her, like, Martha goes from zero to 1,000 real quick. She skips 100. She doesn’t even go to 200. She goes zero to 1,000. And it’s just like, why?” Regina

Due to negative stereotypes about Black children, Regina may worry that Martha will be perceived more harshly than her behavior warrants. One must also consider that while Martha’s intense responses to racism may be considered socially inappropriate, her response is a natural reaction to the unnatural circumstance of oppression and attempted subjugation; it is the adults who have forced themselves into a more unnatural reaction. PsyCrit allows our consideration of ecological variables surrounding youth to include racial realism and critical perspectives.

Consideration of self in science: Identity-consciousness and reflexivity

In an effort to conduct valid qualitative research and inspire trust in the readership, the authors of this manuscript engaged in reflexivity activities throughout the exemplar study discussed here. Prior to engaging in research activities, the members of the research team met as a group to unpack personal bias, expectations, and salient identities brought into the work. Each member came from a different educational background (school psychology, public policy, public health, and sociology) which uniquely informed their understanding of systemic racism and its implications. Combined, the research team brought with them a host of theoretical frameworks to analyze and understand racialized experiences.

For example, while one member noted that their understanding of racism stems from “both a systems level and individual, biopsychosocial level,” another noted that their community involvement provided firsthand experience on how “historical exclusionism creates and bolsters systemic racism.” Additionally, each member came from a different sociocultural background and experienced some degree of marginalization in society, either as a Black person, a first-generation American, or a woman. The research team’s experiences allowed them to empathize with the participant narratives, but each member acknowledged that experiences of marginalized populations are not uniform and that the Black experience in America in particular is nuanced and cannot be generalized. There was a universal desire to “do right” by Black people of all ages, ethnicities, and creeds within this group. An open acknowledgment of the role of white supremacy and that “racism is everywhere and in everything” was made. It is this “everywhere” nature that led the team to commit to addressing this problem. Further, within our group, the scholars of color acknowledged complicated identities that, through intersection with varying systems of privilege and oppression, bring joy and pain all at once. Non-Black scholars recognized that “what they can learn pales in comparison to the Black experience,” and yet, learning is continually sought to make our communities safer and healthier. The perspectives were diverse, and thus one unified positionality is difficult to capture. Regardless, this exercise in reflexivity allowed the team to move forward with priorities, aims, and identities brought to the work made plain. Lastly, these disclosures are a critical exercise in trust-building between scientists and consumers of science.

Through this practice of reflexivity, the research team sought to unhook from the desire to engage in “positionless science” and conversely worked to lean into understanding the implications of their varied identities and experiences. In doing so, the team hoped to address implicit biases and the gaps in knowledge that emerged. This was both a practice in self-reflection as well as harm reduction because of the history of harm that has been, often unknowingly, inflicted by social scientists. Moreover, these intentional discussions build rapport between author and reader, while exemplifying a new approach to psychological research, one grounded in CRT and other such theories.

“Lift Ev’ry voice”: Provide opportunities for counter-storytelling

“We are not a monolith”: Anti-essentialism and intersectionality

Racial discrimination is gendered: while Black men can be perceived as threatening, Black women are often misconstrued as promiscuous (Hester & Gray, 2018; Lewis et al., 2016). Alicia, in discussing her own experiences of gendered discrimination and how she tries to navigate the same with her daughter, reveals unique parenting challenges:

“And so, after a while I just got tired of it (comments her daughter was sharing about her own features). I’m tired of straightening her hair at the end of a relaxing night and sometimes burning it. For me, after a while, it’s fine. I just wear my hair the way it is. And you know, because there’s. . . I feel like for African American kids and especially girls, there’s a lot of negative connotations about our features like our nose is too big, our skin is too dark, or our lips are too thick.” Alicia

PsyCrit allows us to capture the struggle of being an adolescent high school girl, a Black girl, and the space Alicia’s daughter occupies at the intersection of the two. We also bear witness to Alicia’s struggles of socializing her daughter to combat the dual discrimination she encounters within these spaces. Alicia practices certain behaviors that accommodate to dominant cultural norms and notes a tension in imparting these behaviors to her daughter. This may demonstrate that there may be generational differences in coping with intersectional discrimination, and, in the case of present-day adolescents, these same behaviors may not serve well as a coping device.

In another instance, Alicia notes:

“You know what, it was one incident where my neighbor, she was Black herself—but she was like really, really light skin—told me and my little brother that we couldn’t play with her daughter because we were too dark and that her house was the yellow house. So, my mom didn’t take lightly to that, and they got into a fistfight over it. And she’s never said a mean word to me since.” Alicia

Alicia demonstrates that instances of racial discrimination are not uniform among Black communities. Discrimination exists within Black communities in the form of colorism and other prejudice. Unfortunately, this nuance is often lost when Black participants of various ethnicities, socioeconomic strata, or educational levels are aggregated. The anti-essentialism and intersectionality recommendations from PsyCrit can aid scholars in tapping into the rich and variable experiences within Blackness. This analysis teaches one not to incorrectly aggregate racial discrimination as a monolithic experience.

So often, microaggressions can be challenging to describe plainly, because they are these atomistic social incidents, often accidents, that can hurt and even trigger traumatic memories of racism. Yet, incidences of within-group discrimination can be particularly painful because they can feel like a cultural betrayal from someone once thought of as safe (e.g., Gómez, 2019). Overall, these data about racial discrimination speak to the variety of experiences that Black Americans have had throughout time and different spaces.

He does, like, I notice that he doesn’t really like to talk in front of other people, um, because he kind of stutters a little bit. Like, he has, uh, what do they call it, disfluent speech. Like it’s not like he gets stuck on one syllable or whatever. Like, he’ll say a word over and over like three times, and then he’ll say. . .So, I know that he’s self-conscious about that. . .So, um, that would be pretty much my concerns. Just his independence, his social anxiety, and just being more confident in himself. Kathryn

Kathryn’s concern for her child’s safety is compounded by both his speech impediment and race. That she shares perfectly ordinary concerns for her child demonstrates the need, once again, to evaluate these concerns from an anti-essentialist and intersectional lens and to resist the assumption that a parent with a Black child’s primary concern will always be race.

Kathryn and Alicia indicated a variety of concerns based on their children’s behaviors. Alicia’s worries for her daughter’s emotionality are likely tied up in the assumptions people often make about Black people, about women, and about Black women specifically. Due to the adultification of Black children, the same concerns we bear for Black women also extend to Black girls. People sense aggression, anger, and “attitude” where it is not present, and parents often account for these concerns in the way they socialize their children. In another vein, Kathryn worries for her son and his communication, anxiety, and confidence challenges—as any parent would—but her worry does not stop there. She then must worry, what happens if my child encounters law enforcement who do not know of his challenges? Will they see him for the color of his skin alone and make erroneous assumptions about his compliance? So many child concerns or behavior problems, especially among white children, might be seen as typical or normal given their age. However, with the adultification of Black children and even potential developmental delays, these children are at a higher risk of harm due to these behaviors (Dancy, 2014; Davis & Marsh, 2020).