“Black Girls,Since We Struggled So Hard,We Push to Get More”: Adolescent Black Girls’ Awareness of Intersectional Oppression

Abstract

As Black girls make sense of their identities in the context of racial, gender, and intersectional oppression, they also develop an awareness of the system of inequality and oppression in society. However, with in the growing body of research in developmental science focused on adolescents’ awareness of structural oppression in society, or “critical consciousness,” there remains a gap in listening to Black girls and their unique intersectional identity experiences to understand how adolescents are aware of oppression. The current qualitative analysis uses in depth interview data to examine whether and how adolescent Black girls discuss oppression in the context of their racial, gender, and intersectional identities. Analysis reveals that adolescent Black girls (N = 60; M_age = 16.17; SD = 1.23) display an awareness of oppression through: (a) Stereotypes and (b) Hierarchies. Patterns of awareness were high and similar for race (“Black”) and intersectionality (“Black girl”) but lower for gender (“girl”). We discuss contributions for studying identity, critical consciousness, and intersectionality during adolescence, and prioritizing the knowledge of Black girls.

Keywords

African-Americans (U.S.)identity issues gender qualitative methods

Get full access to this article

View all access options for this article.

References

Agger

C. A.

Roby

R. S.

Nicolai

K. D.

Koenka

A. C.

Miles

M. L.

(2024). Taking a critical look at adolescent research on Black girls and women: A systematic review. Journal of Adolescent Research, 39(2), 413–460.

Anderson

M. L.

Collins

P. H.

(2013). Race, class and gender: An anthology (8th ed.). Wadsworth.

Anderson

R. E.

Ahn

L. H.

Brooks

J. R.

Charity-Parker

Inniss-Thompson

Gumudavelly

Mitchell

Anyiwo

(2023). “The talk” tells the story: A qualitative investigation of parents’ racial socialization competency with Black adolescents. Journal of Adolescent Research, 38, 562–588. https://doi.org/10.1037/cdp0000605

Bañales

Hope

E. C.

Rowley

S. J.

Cryer-Coupet

Q. R.

(2021). Raising justice-minded youth: Parental ethnic-racial and political socialization and black youth’s critical consciousness. Journal of Social Issues, 77, 964–986. https://doi.org/10.1111/josi.12486

Beauboeuf-Lafontant

(2005). Keeping up appearances, getting fed up: The embodiment of strength among African American women. Meridians, 5, 104–123. https://www-jstor-org.web.bisu.edu.cn/stable/40338673

Bigler

R. S.

Arthur

A. E.

Hughes

J. M.

Patterson

M. M.

(2008). The politics of race and gender: Children’s perceptions of discrimination and the US presidency. Analyses of Social Issues and Public Policy, 8, 83–112. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-2415.2008.00161.x

Birks

Chapman

Francis

(2008). Memoing in qualitative research: Probing data and processes. Journal of Research in Nursing, 13, 68–75. https://doi.org/10.1177/1744987107081254

Blau

F. D.

Kahn

L. M.

(2017). The gender wage gap: Extent, trends, and explanations. Journal of Economic Literature, 55(3), 789–865.

Bowleg

(2008). When Black + lesbian + woman ≠ Black lesbian woman: The methodological challenges of qualitative and quantitative intersectionality research. Sex Roles, 59, 312–325. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-008-9400-z

10.

Brayboy

B. M. J.

(2005). Toward a tribal critical race theory in education. The Urban Review, 37, 425–446.

11.

Brown

C. S.

(2017). Discrimination in childhood and adolescence: A developmental intergroup approach. Psychology Press.

12.

Brown

L. M.

Gilligan

(1992). Meeting at the crossroads: Women’s psychology and girls’ development. Harvard University Press.

13.

Byrd

C. M.

Ahn

L. H.

(2020). Profiles of ethnic-racial socialization from family, school, neighborhood, and the internet: Relations to adolescent outcomes. Journal of Community Psychology, 48, 1942–1963. https://doi.org/10.1002/jcop.22393

14.

Charles

Collyer

Wimer

(2022). The role of government transfers in the black-White Child Poverty gap. Poverty and Social Policy Brief, 6. https://povertycenter.columbia.edu/sites/default/files/content/Publications/Role-of-Government-Transfers-Black-White-Child-Poverty-Gap-CPSP-2022.pdf

15.

Cho

Crenshaw

K. W.

McCall

(2013). Toward a field of intersectionality studies: Theory, applications, and praxis. Signs, 38, 785–810. https://doi.org/10.1086/669608

16.

Clonan-Roy

Jacobs

C. E.

Nakkula

M. J.

(2016). Towards a model of positive youth development specific to girls of color: Perspectives on development, resilience, and empowerment. Gender Issues, 33, 96–121. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12147-016-9156-7

17.

Collins

D. L.

(2016). Perceived parental ethnic-racial socialization as a predictor of African American youths’ racial identity, critical consciousness, and race-related stress. Boston College. http://hdl.handle.net/2345/bc-ir:107279

18.

Collins

P. H.

(1986). Learning from the outsider within: The sociological significance of Black feminist thought. Social Problems, 33(6), s14–s32.

19.

Collins

P. H.

(1989). A comparison of two works on black family life. Signs, 14, 875–884. https://doi.org/10.1086/494548

20.

Collins

P. H.

(2000). Black feminist thought: Knowledge, consciousness, and the politics of empowerment. Routledge.

21.

Combahee River Collective. (1977). Combahee river collective: A Black feminist statement. In Guy-Sheftall

(Ed.), Words of fire: An anthology of African American feminist thought (pp. 232–240). New Press.

22.

Corbin

J. M.

Strauss

(1990). Grounded theory research: Procedures, canons, and evaluative criteria. Qualitative Sociology, 13, 3–21. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00988593

23.

Crenshaw

K. W.

(1989). Demarginalizing the intersection of race and sex: A Black feminist critique of antidiscrimination doctrine, feminist theory and antiracist politics. University of Chicago Legal Forum 140: 138–167. https://chicagounbound.uchicago.edu/uclf/vol1989/iss1/8

24.

Crenshaw

K. W.

Ocen

Nanda

(2015). Black girls matter: Pushed out, overpoliced and underprotected. https://scholarship.law.columbia.edu/faculty_scholarship/3227

25.

Curtin

Stewart

A. J.

Cole

E. R.

(2015). Challenging the status quo: The role of intersectional awareness in activism for social change and pro-social intergroup attitudes. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 39, 512–529. https://doi.org/10.1177/0361684315580439

26.

Das

Pitts

Arevalo

Cox

Blood

Hughes

Coulanges

Keryc

Rogers

Way

(2022). Lessons of resistance from black mothers to their black sons. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 32, 981–998. https://doi.org/10.1111/jora.12740

27.

Diemer

M. A.

Rapa

L. J.

Park

C. J.

Perry

J. C.

(2014). Development and validation of the critical consciousness scale. Youth & Society, 49, 461–483. https://doi.org/10.1177/0044118X14538289

28.

Diemer

M. A.

Rapa

L. J.

Voight

A. M.

McWhirter

E. H.

(2016). Critical consciousness: A developmental approach to addressing marginalization and oppression. Child Development Perspectives, 10, 216–221. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdep.12193

29.

Donovan

R. A.

(2011). Tough or tender: (Dis) similarities in white college students’ perceptions of black and white women. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 35, 458–468. https://doi.org/10.1177/0361684311406874

30.

Dull

B. D.

Rogers

L. O.

Charlson

(2024). “I don’t think there is much racism left”: A critical analysis of White adolescents’(un) awareness of white privilege. Qualitative Psychology, 11(1), 52.

31.

Edwards

C. P.

Knoche

Kumru

(2003). Socialization of boys and girls in natural contexts. Encyclopedia of Sex and Gender, 1, 34–41. https://digitalcommons.unl.edu/psychfacpub/613/

32.

Egbeyemi

(2019). Shedding light on colorism: How the colonial fabrication of colorism impacts the lives of African American women. Journal of Integrative Research and Reflection, 2, 14–25.

33.

El-Amin

Seider

Graves

Tamerat

Clark

Soutter

Johannsen

Malhotra

(2017). Critical consciousness: A key to student achievement. Phi Delta Kappan, 98, 18–23. https://doi.org/10.1177/0031721717690360

34.

Elenbaas

Rizzo

M. T.

Killen

(2020). A developmental-science perspective on social inequality. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 29, 610–616. https://doi.org/10.1177/0963721420964147

35.

Epstein

Blake

González

(2017). The erasure of Black girls’ childhood. http://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3000695

36.

Erikson

E. H.

(1968). Identity: Youth and crisis. WW Norton & Company.

37.

Freire

(1970). Pedagogy of the oppressed. Seabury Press.

38.

Freire

(1976). Literacy and the possible dream. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02220134

39.

Frisby

C. M.

(2019). Black and beautiful: A content analysis and study of colorism and strides toward inclusivity in the cosmetic industry. Advances in Journalism and Communication, 7, 35–55. https://doi.org/10.4236/ajc.2019.72003

40.

Ghavami

Peplau

L. A.

(2013). An intersectional analysis of gender and ethnic stereotypes: Testing three hypotheses. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 37, 113–127. https://doi.org/10.1177/0361684312464203

41.

Gilligan

(2015). The listening guide method of psychological inquiry. Qualitative Psychology, 2(1): 69–77.

42.

Griffith

A. N.

(2023). “They do us wrong”: Bringing together Black adolescent girls’ voices on school staff’s differential treatment. Journal of Black Psychology, 49, 598–645. https://doi.org/10.1177/00957984231191848

43.

Halliday

A. S.

Brown

N. E.

(2018). The power of Black girl magic anthems: Nicki Minaj, Beyoncé, and “feeling myself” as political empowerment. Souls, 20, 222–238. https://doi.org/10.1080/10999949.2018.1520067

44.

Hammack

P. L.

Toolis

E. E.

(2015). Identity, politics, and the cultural psychology of adolescence. In Jenson

L. A.

(Ed.), The Oxford handbook of human development and culture: An interdisciplinary perspective (pp. 1–27). Oxford University Press.

45.

Harris-Perry

(2011). Sister citizen: Shame, stereotypes, and black women in America. Yale University Press.

46.

Heberle

A. E.

Rapa

L. J.

Farago

(2020). Critical consciousness in children and adolescents: A systematic review, critical assessment, and recommendations for future research. Psychological Bulletin, 146, 525–551. https://doi.org/10.1037/bul0000230

47.

Hill

Warren

Jacobs

C. E.

(2023). Mapping the boundaries of racetalk: Examining the experiences of black girls in independent schools. Teachers College Record, 125, 133–158. https://doi.org/10.1177/01614681231194407

48.

hooks

(1986). Talking back. Discourse, 8, 123–128.

49.

hooks

(1989). Talking back: Thinking feminist, thinking black. South End Press.

50.

hooks

(1993). Sisters of the yam: Black women and self-recovery. South End Press.

51.

hooks

(1994). Teaching to transgress. Routledge.

52.

hooks

(2003). Rock my soul: Black people and self-esteem. Washington Square Press.

53.

Hope

E. C.

Anyiwo

Palmer

G. J. M.

Bañales

Smith

C. D.

(2023). Sociopolitical development: A history and overview of a black liberatory approach to youth development. American Psychologist, 78, 484–495. https://doi.org/10.1037/amp0001119

54.

Hughes

Rodriguez

Smith

E. P.

Johnson

D. J.

Stevenson

H. C.

Spicer

(2006). Parents’ ethnic-racial socialization practices: A review of research and directions for future study. Developmental Psychology, 42, 747–770. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.42.5.747

55.

Huguley

J. P.

Wang

M. T.

Vasquez

A. C.

Guo

(2019). Parental ethnic–racial socialization practices and the construction of children of color’s ethnic–racial identity: A research synthesis and meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 145, 437–458. https://doi.org/10.1037/bul0000187

56.

Kelly

L. L.

(2018). A snapchat story: How black girls develop strategies for critical resistance in school. Learning Media & Technology, 43, 374–389. https://doi.org/10.1080/17439884.2018.1498352

57.

Kelly

L. L.

(2020). “I love us for real”: Exploring homeplace as a site of healing and resistance for black girls in schools. Equity & Excellence in Education, 53, 449–464. https://doi.org/10.1177/00420859221086519

58.

Leaper

Brown

C. S.

(2008). Perceived experiences with sexism among adolescent girls. Child Development, 79, 685–704. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2008.01151.x

59.

Leonard

(2023, March). Racial and ethnic disparities in the youth justice system. Coalition for Juvenile Justice. https://ojjdp.ojp.gov/model-programs-guide/literature-reviews/racial-and-ethnic-disparity

60.

Lesane-Brown

C. L.

(2006). A review of race socialization within Black families. Developmental Review, 26, 400–426. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dr.2006.02.001

61.

Letendre

(2007). “Sugar and spice but not always nice”: Gender socialization and its impact on development and maintenance of aggression in adolescent girls. Child and Adolescent Social Work Journal, 24, 353–368. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10560-007-0088-7

62.

Litchmore

R. V.

(2022). ‘She’s very known in the school’: Black girls, race, gender, and sexual violence in Ontario schools. Qualitative Psychology, 9, 232–250. https://doi.org/10.1037/qup0000221

63.

Lorde

(1984). Sister outsider. Crossing Press.

64.

Marecek

Fine

Kidder

(2001). Working between two worlds: Qualitative methods and psychology. In Tolman

D. L.

Brydon-Miller

(Eds.), Qualitative m subjects to subjectivities: A handbook of interpretive and participatory methods (pp. 29–41). New York University Press. https://works.swarthmore.edu/fac-psychology/607

65.

Mathews

C. J.

(2020). What does it mean to be black and aware? A theoretical and empirical analysis of black racial identity and critical consciousness. https://hdl.handle.net/2027.42/163187

66.

Mathews

C. J.

Medina

M. A.

Bañales

Pinetta

B. J.

Marchand

A. D.

Agi

A. C.

Miller

S. M.

Hoffman

A. J.

Diemer

M. A.

Rivas-Drake

(2020). Mapping the intersections of adolescents’ ethnic-racial identity and critical consciousness. Adolescent Research Review, 5, 363–379. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40894-019-00122-0

67.

Mays

V. M.

Ghavami

(2018). History, aspirations, and transformations of intersectionality: Focusing on gender. https://doi.org/10.1037/0000059-028

68.

Mills

C. W.

(2014). The racial contract. Cornell University Press.

69.

Moffitt

Katsiaficas

Ghavami

Minor

Padilla

Rogers

L. O.

(2023). Intersectionality and identity: A systematic review and qualitative analysis of US research in psychological science. Identity, 23, 288–313.

70.

Moffitt

Rogers

L. O.

Mzizi

Charlson

(2024). Race talk during the 2020 US presidential election: Emerging adults’ critical consciousness and racial identity in context. Journal of Adolescent Research, 39, 1048–1085. https://doi.org/10.1177/07435584221145009

71.

Morris

(2016). Pushout: The criminalization of Black girls in schools. New Press.

72.

Nasir

N. S.

McKinney

Royston

O’Connor

Wischnia

(2017). Knowing about racial stereotypes versus believing them. Urban Education, 52, 491–524. https://doi.org/10.1177/0042085916672290

73.

Pillen

McNaughton

Ward

P. R.

(2020). Critical consciousness development: A systematic review of empirical studies. Health Promotion International, 35, 1519–1530. https://doi.org/10.1093/heapro/daz125

74.

Rivas-Drake

Hughes

Way

(2009). A preliminary analysis of associations among ethnic–racial socialization, ethnic discrimination, and ethnic identity among urban sixth graders. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 19, 558–584. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1532-7795.2009.00607.x

75.

Robinson

Ward

J. V.

(1991). “A belief in self far greater than anyone’s disbelief”: Cultivating resistance among African American female adolescents. Women & Therapy, 11, 87–103. https://doi.org/10.1300/J015V11N03_06

76.

Rogers

L. O.

(2018). Who am I, who are we? Erikson and a transactional approach to identity research. Identity, 18, 284–294. https://doi.org/10.1080/15283488.2018.1523728

77.

Rogers

L. O.

(2024). Lessons on listening from Carol Gilligan for the psychological study of human development. Harvard Educational Review, 94, 98–105. https://doi.org/10.17763/1943-5045-94.1.98

78.

Rogers

L. O.

Butler Barnes

Sahaguian

Padilla

Minor

(2021). BlackGirlMagic: Using multiple data sources to learn about black adolescent girls’ identities, intersectionality, and media socialization. Journal of Social Issues, 77, 1282–1304. https://doi.org/10.1111/josi.12483

79.

Rogers

L. O.

Butler-Barnes

S. T.

(2022). [E]ven though we don’t have everything. . .We build our own thing”: Exploring Black girl space. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 32, 49–68. https://doi.org/10.1111/jora.12697

80.

Rogers

L. O.

Moffitt

Jones

C. M.

(2021). Listening for culture. Cultural Methods in Psychology: Describing and Transforming Cultures, 45–75.

81.

Rogers

L. O.

Moffitt

McLean

K. C.

Syed

(2024). Research as resistance: Naming and dismantling the master narrative of “good” science. American Psychologist, 79, 484–496. https://doi.org/10.1037/amp0001246

82.

Rogers

L. O.

Niwa

E. Y.

Chung

Yip

Chae

(2021). M(ai)cro: Centering the macrosystem in human development. Human Development, 65, 270–292. https://doi.org/10.1159/000519630

83.

Rogers

L. O.

Syed

(2021). Conceptualizing the multiple levels of identity and intersectionality. In Bamberg

Demuth

Watzlawik

(Eds.), The cambridge handbook of identity (pp. 604–626). Cambridge University Press.

84.

Rogers

L. O.

Versey

H. S.

Cielto

(2022). “They’re always gonna notice my natural hair”: Identity, intersectionality and resistance among Black girls. Qualitative Psychology, 9, 211–231. https://doi.org/10.1037/qup0000208

85.

Rogers

L. O.

Way

(2016). “I have goals to prove all those people wrong and not fit into any one of those boxes” paths of resistance to stereotypes among black adolescent males. Journal of Adolescent Research, 31, 263–298. https://doi.org/10.1177/0743558415600071

86.

Rogers

L. O.

Way

(2019). Reimagining social and emotional development: Accommodation and resistance to dominant ideologies in the identities and friendships of boys of color. Human Development, 61(6), 311–331.

87.

Rogers

L. O.

Way

(2021). Child development in an ideological context: Through the lens of resistance and accommodation. Child Development Perspectives, 15, 242–248. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdep.12433

88.

Rogers

L. O.

Zosuls

K. M.

Halim

M. L.

Ruble

Hughes

Fuligni

(2012). Meaning making in middle childhood: An exploration of the meaning of ethnic identity. Cultural Diversity & Ethnic Minority Psychology, 18, 99–108. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0027691

89.

Romero

R. E.

(2000). The icon of the strong Black Woman: The paradox of strength. In Jackson

L. C.

Greene

(Eds.), Psychotherapy with African American women (pp. 225–238). The Guilford Press.

90.

Rosario

R. J.

Minor

Rogers

L. O.

(2021). “Oh, you’re pretty for a dark-skinned girl”: Black adolescent girls’ identities and resistance to colorism. Journal of Adolescent Research, 36(5), 501–534.

91.

Seider

Clark

Graves

Kelly

L. L.

Soutter

El-Amin

Jennett

(2019). Black and Latinx adolescents’ developing beliefs about poverty and associations with their awareness of racism. Developmental Psychology, 55, 509–524. https://doi.org/10.1037/dev0000585

92.

Seidman

(2006). Interviewing as qualitative research: A guide for researchers in education and the social sciences. Teachers College Press.

93.

Settles

I. H.

Jones

M. K.

Buchanan

N. T.

Dotson

(2021). Epistemic exclusion: Scholar (ly) devaluation that marginalizes faculty of color. Journal of Diversity in Higher Education, 14, 493–507. https://doi.org/10.1037/dhe0000174

94.

Settles

I. H.

Warner

L. R.

Buchanan

N. T.

Jones

M. K.

(2020). Understanding psychology’s resistance to intersectionality theory using a framework of epistemic exclusion and invisibility. Journal of Social Issues, 76(4), 796–813.

95.

Sewell

C. J. P.

(2013). Mammies and matriarchs: Tracing images of the black female in popular culture 1950s to present. Journal of African American Studies, 17, 308–326.

96.

Skinner

O. D.

McHale

S. M.

(2022). Family gender socialization in childhood and adolescence. In VanderLaan

D. P.

Wong

W. I.

(Eds.), Gender and sexuality development: Contemporary theory and research (pp. 233–253). Springer Nature. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-84273-4_8

97.

Skinner

O. D.

Perkins

Wood

Kurtz-Costes

(2016). Gender development in African American youth. Journal of Black Psychology, 42, 394–423.

98.

Spencer

M. B.

Cole

S. P.

Jones

S. M.

Swanson

D. P.

(1997). Neighborhood and family influences on young urban adolescents’ behavior problems: A multisample, multisite analysis. Neighborhood Poverty, 1, 200–218.

99.

Spencer

M. B.

(2021). Acknowledging bias and pursuing protections to support anti-racist developmental science: Critical contributions of phenomenological variant of ecological systems theory. Journal of Adolescent Research, 36, 569–583. https://doi.org/10.1177/07435584211045129

100.

Stokes

M. N.

Hope

E. C.

Cryer-Coupet

Q. R.

Elliot

(2020). Black girl blues: The roles of racial socialization, gendered racial socialization, and racial identity on depressive symptoms among Black girls. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 49, 2175–2189. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-020-01317-8

101.

Swanson

D. P.

Edwards

M. C.

Spencer

M. B.

(Eds.) (2010). Adolescence: Development during a global era. Academic Press.

102.

Thomas

A. J.

King

C. T.

(2007). Gendered racial socialization of African American mothers and daughters. Family Journal, 15, 137–142. https://doi.org/10.1177/1066480706297853

103.

Townsend

T. G.

Neilands

T. B.

Thomas

A. J.

Jackson

T. R.

(2010). I’m no Jezebel; I am young, gifted, and Black: Identity, sexuality, and Black girls. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 34, 273–285. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1471-6402.2010.01574.x

104.

Tribble

B. L. D.

Allen

S. H.

Hart

J. R.

Francois

T. S.

Smith-Bynum

M. A.

(2019). “No [right] way to be a black woman”: Exploring gendered racial socialization among black women. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 43, 381–397. https://doi.org/10.1177/0361684318825439

105.

Ward

J. V.

(2018). Staying woke: Raising Black girls to resist disconnection. In Way

Ali

Gilligan

Noguera

(Eds.), The crisis of connection (pp. 106–128). New York University Press.

106.

Watson

N. N.

Hunter

C. D.

(2016). “I had to be strong” tensions in the strong Black woman schema. Journal of Black Psychology, 42, 424–452. https://doi.org/10.1177/0095798415597093

107.

Watts

R. J.

Diemer

M. A.

Voight

A. M.

(2011). Critical consciousness: Current status and future directions. New Directions for Child and Adolescent Development, 2011, 43–57. https://doi.org/10.1002/cd.310

108.

Watts

R. J.

Halkovic

(2022). Sociopolitical development and social identities. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 32, 1270–1279. https://doi.org/10.1111/jora.12811

109.

Watts

R. J.

Williams

N. C.

Jagers

R. J.

(2003). Sociopolitical development. American Journal of Community Psychology, 31, 185–194. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1023091024140

110.

Way

Okazaki

Zhao

Kim

J. J.

Chen

Yoshikawa

Jia

Deng

(2013). Social and emotional parenting: Mothering in a changing Chinese society. Asian American Journal of Psychology, 4, 61–70. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0031204

111.

Way

Rogers

(2015). “[T]hey say Black men won’t make it, but I know I’m gonna make it”: Ethnic and racial identity development in the context of cultural stereotypes. In McLean

K. C.

Syed

(Eds.), The Oxford handbook of identity development (pp. 269–285). Oxford University Press. https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2014-49097-017

112.

West

(2012). Mammy, Jezebel, sapphire, and their homegirls: Developing an “oppositional gaze” toward the images of black women. In Chrisler

J. C.

Golden

Rozee

P. D.

(Eds.), Lectures on the psychology of women (4th ed., pp. 286–299). Waveland Press, Inc. https://digitalcommons.tacoma.uw.edu/ias_pub/270/

113.

Whitney

S. E.

(2018). Sprinkling black girl magic in the middle-grade novel. Girlhood Studies, 11, 108–125. https://doi.org/10.3167/ghs.2018.110109

114.

Wilkerson

(2020). Caste: The origins of our discontents. Random House.

115.

Wilkinson

Pickett

(2011). The spirit level: Why greater equality makes societies stronger. Bloomsbury Publishing USA.

116.

Wilson

(2016). Be true to you: A practical guide to pursuing an authentic path. In-Progress, LLC.

117.

Witt

S. D.

(2000). The influence of peers on children’s socialization to gender roles. Early Child Development and Care, 162, 1–7. https://doi.org/10.1080/0300443001620101

118.

Wolcott

H. F.

(1994). Transforming qualitative data: Description, analysis, and interpretation. Sage.