Perfectionism in Language Learners

Case Examples

Four case illustrations are outlined below. It will be seen that these case accounts typically focus on university students and older adults. In some instances, these individuals sought counselling due to their distress and inability to cope.

Fujio (2010) provided a descriptive account of three Japanese graduate students attending university in the United Kingdom. Detailed assessments of their levels of fluency were obtained over several time periods. Particularly relevant for our purpose is that one of the young women did not progress; this young Japanese woman maintained extremely low speech rates and a greater frequency of pauses when speaking. It was concluded that she was being overly concerned with accuracy and not making mistakes to the point that it actually ended up costing her the ability to become fluent. Instead, she was characterized as “a passive learner” who did not fare as well as other learners. This lack of progress was attributed by Fujio (2010) to two factors—the young woman’s perfectionistic personality and the cultural trait and tendency of Japanese people to regard mistakes as shameful.

Another highly relevant account was provided by Yoshida (2013) who collected extensive data from students from a university in Australia. These students were taking a second-year Japanese language course. Data were obtained via interviews, observations, and having student participants keep daily diaries. Qualitative content analyses showed that students in general recognized the importance of participating by actively communicating, but at the same time, perfectionism was a factor that held back certain students. In particular, a student named Sandra described herself as a perfectionist who places great importance on accuracy, but she took this need for accuracy too far and the end result was that she eventually avoided speaking Japanese. Thus, perfectionism mitigated against language production. Sandra summarized herself by observing that “. . . As such, I dreaded being asked to answer any questions, as I was sure to get it wrong, and my perfectionist nature hates that” (Yoshida, 2013, p. 376). Sandra eventually overcame her difficulties as a result of two key developments. First, she increasingly endorsed a belief in the importance of confidence and participation; clearly, perfectionism is less problematic among students with a reasonable level of confidence. Second, as a result of eventually adapting to the new environment and her growing confidence, Sandra became more mindful and accepted the belief that no one can be perfect.

Although the focus in descriptions of language learning anxiety is often on children, adolescents, and university students, the problems associated with perfectionism can also be seen in case studies of how perfectionism contributes to language learning issues, emotional distress, and other concerns that tend to persist and limit the success of older people. This was perhaps best illustrated by the case analysis of a Korean gynecologist named Sungwoo. He was in his 40s and a professor in a medical school in Korea who came to the United States with his family as a visiting scholar (see Kang, 2006). Although he was described as highly motivated to learn English, especially spoken English, Sungwoo’s perfectionism was one of several factors that resulted in him being very anxious and highly reluctant to speak English. According to Kang (2006), one of Sungwoo’s core themes was reflected by his observation that “I think I try to be perfect in everything I do” (p. 65). Sungwoo observed during one of several interviews that

I only want to say perfect sentences. I believe that we should say correct sentences like those in textbooks. I know it hinders my English learning. Due to my desire to speak in correct expressions, I speak less often than others do . . . When I come up with the correct words to say, it is too late because they are already talking about something else. (p. 65)

Contextual factors also seemed to amplify the negative implications of having a perfectionistic personality. In this instance, Sungwoo noted that his need to speak perfect English was also a by-product of the societal expectations that physicians must be faultless and not make mistakes.

Additional insights into how a perfectionistic overconcern about making mistakes can have severe consequences were provided in the case account of Mr. M as described by Weiss, Singh, and Hope (2011). Mr. M was an immigrant who received treatment for social anxiety disorder. He was born in Central America and had immigrated 30 years earlier. He had difficulties at work because he anticipated that others would laugh at him if he made a mistake. As for language issues, even though his actual spoken English was described as being very clear and seemingly not a problem, Mr. M was hypersensitive to possible mistakes and the consequence of making mistakes. Weiss et al. (2011) reported that Mr. M was quite tearful in therapy sessions when he outlined an imagined scenario in which he would eventually end up being very lonely after being rejected by others for making a mistake when speaking English or writing in English. In this instance, evaluative concerns related to anticipated communication deficits set the stage for unhealthy social isolation and disengagement.

These case accounts illustrate certain perfectionism dimensions that will be described in greater detail in a later segment of this article. Key elements of perfectionism in these cases include a personal form of self-oriented perfectionism as well as social pressures to be perfect and to seem perfect. Most notably, the people described above had a hypersensitive aversion to making mistakes that seem fuelled by their sense of what these mistakes signified.

Qualitative Investigations

Descriptions of perfectionism and language learning difficulties in certain individuals have been supplemented by qualitative investigations that have yielded many insights into the relevant themes in perfectionism and language learning. A brief overview of these qualitative studies is provided below.

Ewald (2007) conducted a qualitative analysis of language anxiety in 21 advanced students of Spanish. Overall, two thirds of the students indicated that anxiety was caused by the potential of making mistakes and it was indicated that several students were troubled by the realization that mistakes are inevitable. For instance, a student named Juan noted that “I do not want to make mistakes. I don’t want to look foolish” (p. 131). Ewald (2007) emphasized that for instructors, it is important to convey the message that mistakes are a normal part of the learning process, and the goal is to learn and improve rather than demonstrate perfect performance.

Liu (2007) suggested that the unwillingness of students in China to communicate and participate in oral English classrooms is a clear case of being afraid to make a mistake and related fears of being laughed at; this is likely a reflection of Confucian ideology and the emphasis placed on perfect performance. A related concern predominant in Chinese culture is the fear of losing face. Liu (2007) made several references to students who were focused on this possibility as part of their comments about what it means to make mistakes.

More recently, a qualitative investigation by Coryell and Clark (2009) examined language learners in Texas suffering from anxiety while taking online Spanish courses. Much of their anxiety was traced back to a perfectionistic focus on correctness and precision reflecting the belief that there was only one right way. Coryell and Clark (2009) observed astutely that the fit between the anxious learner and the course structure must be taken into account because worried, perfectionistic students will do less well in courses that focus on precision, timed-responses, and providing the one correct answer, especially if this must be done in a public situation. They further noted that students were particularly uneasy if they had a strong conviction focused on knowing “the one right way” along with pressure to immediately correct communication errors.

Empirical Research

We now turn to our description of relevant perfectionism research. We will see in the studies outlined below that there is a growing number of empirical quantitative studies on perfectionism, language learning, and language learning anxiety. Overall, these investigations are relatively small in number, however, and they are limited substantially by the lack of use of well-developed measures of perfectionism along with a failure to adopt the theoretical frameworks associated with these measures. Instead, investigators often utilize measures with unknown or uncertain characteristics that have seldom been used in previous research. Although these studies must be viewed from a critical perspective, it is difficult to be too negative about these investigations because these researchers have helped to highlight the significance of this topic, and have taken important first steps to try to address some of the knowledge gaps.

Before describing research on perfectionism in language learning contexts, it is perhaps useful to note that there is a growing literature that examines the negative emotional reactions of perfectionists in performance situations. Several experimental studies attest to the heightened emotional reactions and other dysfunctional tendencies exhibited by perfectionists when they encounter high evaluative pressure in general or they actually receive failure feedback about their performance (e.g., Besser, Flett, Hewitt, & Guez, 2008; DiBartolo & Varner, 2012; Hill, Hall, Duda, & Appleton, 2011). The potential costs inherent in extreme perfectionism in natural performance settings are perhaps best illustrated by a correlational study of 94 professional performers (e.g., musicians, dancers) from the Toronto area (see Mor, Day, Flett, & Hewitt, 1995). This study found that perfectionism was particularly maladaptive in terms of its significant associations with debilitating performance anxiety, reported unhappiness while performing, and dissatisfaction with goal progress, even though the participants were highly accomplished, competent professionals with years of training. Additional tests showed that perfectionism was particularly debilitating among those performers who felt a sense of low personal control. These data have clear and highly negative implications for highly perfectionistic individuals trying to learn a new language. The tendency to evaluate oneself by impossible standards can engender a sense of self-criticism, negative affect, and an inability to be satisfied, and these pressures are felt acutely among people who feel that they are not in control or lack the capability to improve the situation.

The general relevance of perfectionism in language learning anxiety was documented by Argaman and Abu-Rabia (2002), who assessed 68 seventh-grade students who had Hebrew as their mother tongue and who were learning to read and write in English. No specific measure of perfectionism was included in this study but language anxiety was associated with lower reading and writing skills and perfectionism was seen generally as a contributor to language anxiety. It was found that among the high language anxiety students, there was an identifiable subset of students who were anxious due to the perception that they needed to provide a perfect product. Several students refused to try the writing and reading task altogether and 22% indicated that they preferred to not write at all instead of writing and making mistakes. The authors also described a subset of anxious “overstudiers” who perpetuated a self-defeating cycle; that is, these overstudiers pushed themselves in a way that created stress and the stress, in turn, impaired performance. This account accords with Covington’s (2000) description of perfectionistic overstrivers with elevated fear of failure who strive for perfection not only to be successful but also because of their ever-present fear of failure. This kind of overstriving by excessively studying material that one has already learned is particularly self-defeating if it limits taking risks with new material that could result in making mistakes.

Previously, Tsui (1996) provided important insights into reticence and anxiety in second language learners via her qualitative analysis of teacher’s views. It was noted at the outset by Tsui (1996) that it is sometimes the case that more than 40% of the questions posed by teachers in language learning classes are met with silence and this problem is particularly acute among Asian students. The analysis conducted by Tsui (1996) focused on three main factors: (a) low English proficiency; (b) the fear of making mistakes and being negative evaluated, a theme that accords with earlier research on the role of fear of negative evaluation (see Price, 1991); and (c) teachers with unrealistic expectations and an associated inability to tolerant silence, so students are pressured into responding. Tsui (1996) observed that many students would rather remain silent rather than risk making mistakes and trying to live up to unrealistic teacher expectations. It is our contention that although these issues apply to all students, without a doubt it is the case that perfectionistic students are particularly sensitive to failures and public expectations, and they are highly attuned to evaluative expectations and their ability to meet these expectations. These tendencies are exacerbated among students who come from family and cultural backgrounds that emphasize that students must be perfect.

Gregersen and Horwitz (2002) conducted one of the most widely cited research investigations in this area. They compared four highly anxious language learners and four low anxiety language learners who were selected from a sample of 78 students. Transcripts of interviews with these eight students were rank ordered by three raters who were blind to levels of anxiety. The eight students were rank ordered from most to least perfectionistic. This process revealed that the four highly anxious language learners were distinguished from the less anxious participants by their perfectionistic personal performance standards, an overarching concern with committing errors, and their constant fear of negative evaluation. It was also indicated that these four students seemed to have the negative expectations and the self-derogatory cognitions that are central to MacIntyre and Gardner’s (1991) model of language learning anxiety.

A more recent study was conducted in Iran with 300 language learning students (47 men, 253 women) with most participants between the ages of 20 and 25 years (see Pishghadam & Akhoondpoor, 2011). Each participant completed the Ahwaz Perfectionism Scale, which was described as a 27-item unidimensional self-report scale, along with measures of trait and state anxiety. This study also included performance measures tapping reading, writing, speech, and listening performance. The perfectionism inventory used in this study was described as having significant correlations with the Almost Perfect Scale–Revised (r = .36) and the Frost Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale (MPS; r = .29; see Khodarahimi, 2010). Pishghadam and Akhoondpoor (2011) found small but significant associations between elevated perfectionism and lower levels of reading, speaking, and listening performance. There was a negative but nonsignificant association between perfectionism and writing performance, but perfectionism did have a significant negative link with overall grade point average. Particularly noteworthy were extremely robust links between perfectionism and both state anxiety (r = .66) and trait anxiety (r = .76) in these language learners.

Hsu (2012) examined public speaking anxiety in 82 English as Foreign Language (EFL) third-year college students. Hsu (2012) developed a multifactor inventory that included a two-item factor tapping perfectionism (e.g., When I make a mistake while giving a speech, I find it hard to concentrate on the parts that follow). Analyses of the new measure found that the perfectionism measure was correlated significantly with all the other factors. Thus, a more perfectionistic orientation was associated with greater physical and emotional consequences of speech anxiety, perceptions of insufficient preparation, and feelings of helplessness.

Moradan, Kazenian, and Niroo (2013) examined perfectionism and listening comprehension in a sample of 97 Iranian students in a department of foreign languages. Perfectionism was associated robustly and negatively with scores on the TOEFL (Test of English as a Foreign Language) listening test. Importantly, despite the fact that perfectionism was assessed with the Frost MPS, the results were only reported for total perfectionism scores.

Another investigation conducted with 239 high school students from Iran examined perfectionism, foreign language anxiety, and English achievement scores (see GhorbanDordinejad & Nasab, 2013). Perfectionism was assessed with the Almost Perfect Scale–Revised (APS-R). Students deemed to be “maladaptive perfectionists” based on a high self-reported discrepancy score (i.e., falling short of perfectionistic standards) were distinguished by also having elevated levels of anxiety and lower actual performance.

Another study conducted with 265 undergraduate students from Iran who were taking an English course yielded a complex pattern of findings involving perfectionism (see Fahim & Noormohammadi, 2014). Perfectionism was assessed in this study with the Positive and Negative Perfectionism Scale. The main finding that emerged from this study is that maladaptive negative perfectionism was over-represented among the lower achieving students.

Toth (2007) conducted a study that yielded findings that highlight the important nuances and complexities that must be considered when examining perfectionism and language learning. This study was conducted with a sample of Hungarian students in English studies. Students on average had been studying English for more than 8 years. Here, it was found that perfectionism was associated with less foreign language anxiety. This finding in not in keeping with other language learner and perfectionism studies. Several factors may have accounted for the findings reported by Toth (2007). Most notably, perfectionism was assessed with a seven-item scale that was created for this investigation rather than with a standard measure of perfectionism; perhaps this measure had some item content that tapped achievement striving rather than perfectionism per se. Unfortunately, as alluded to earlier, there is a paucity of research in this area based on standard multidimensional measures of perfectionism that have established reliability and validity in a variety of contexts. In addition, the role of past experience may have been quite important here. The majority of participants had at least 8 years of experience studying English. It is likely that perfectionism and an excessive concern with making mistakes are more relevant to the feelings of anxiety among language learners without much experience. There is a clear need to examine potential mediators such as individual differences in confidence and self-efficacy. Research must also begin to incorporate comparisons between learners with more versus less experience.

In previous work, Liu and Jackson (2008) again emphasized how excessive concerns about making mistakes played a joint role in foreign language anxiety and unwillingness to communicate. They showed in their sample of 547 first-year undergraduate students from China that foreign language anxiety and unwillingness to communicate are positively correlated. They also factor analyzed the item responses to the Foreign Language Class Anxiety Scale and they observed that the large first factor referred to as “fear of negative evaluation” included several items that tapped the fear of making mistakes. The items on this factor emphasized fear of failure, the anticipated negative consequences of failure, and concerns involving a heightened sense of public self-consciousness. It is evident from this research that the prospect of making mistakes, especially public mistakes, is central to an understanding of the nature of foreign language anxiety and unwillingness to communicate.

Multidimensional Trait Perfectionism

Research and theory prior to 1990 examined unidimensional perfectionism. The focus here was on a self-oriented form of perfectionism assessed by measures such as the Burns Perfectionism Scale (for an overview, see Flett & Hewitt, 2002). However, at virtually the same time, different teams of researchers made the case for a multidimensional framework and created measures sharing the same name—the Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale (MPS).

The MPS developed by Hewitt and Flett (1991) is a trait measure that reflects the distinction between the personal and interpersonal aspects of perfectionism. This MPS measures three dimensions—self-oriented perfectionism, other-oriented perfectionism, and socially prescribed perfectionism. Self-oriented perfectionists have exceptionally high self-standards and they are compulsively driven to achieve them. These people tend to be highly self-punitive when they fall short of their exacting standards.

Whereas self-oriented perfectionism entails a relentless striving for personal standards of perfection, other-oriented perfectionism involves a focus on the capabilities of others. As such, other-oriented perfectionism is associated with hostility and extrapunitive tendencies toward others rather than negative self-judgments (Hewitt & Flett, 1991).

The third dimension of perfectionism—socially prescribed perfectionism—is the aspect of perfectionism that is related most consistently to maladjustment. Socially prescribed perfectionism entails the belief that others have high expectations and perfectionistic motives for one’s own behaviours and that others will be satisfied only when these standards are attained. Socially prescribed perfectionism is associated with a wide variety of psychological problems, including depression, anxiety, stress, suicidal tendencies, and personality disorders (Besser, Flett, & Hewitt, 2010; Hewitt & Flett, 1991). Although socially prescribed perfectionism has not been studied in the context of language learning anxiety, the perception, veridical or not, that perfection is demanded from other people and from society in general can become an undue sense of pressure that is likely to overwhelm language learners who have limited confidence and limited resourcefulness. One particular manifestation of socially prescribed perfectionism is the belief that teachers demand perfection. A theme often expressed by anxious language learners is that the teacher will only accept perfection and responds in a hypercritical manner when mistakes are made (for a discussion, see Vogely, 1998). A recent analysis of teachers’ tendencies and biases underscores the fact that these socially prescribed pressures are often real and not simply imagined. A salient theme found among Iranian English language teachers was a bias toward perfectionism that was more evident among teachers with traditional views of language teaching and language learning (see Tavakoli, Zabihi, & Ghadiri, 2015). Socially prescribed perfectionism is also likely to be a factor among individuals who come from cultural and familial contexts where there are very salient and strong pressures to be perfect.

An important caveat about self-oriented perfectionism needs to be stated; that is, self-oriented perfectionism should not be equated with conscientiousness. We have stated consistently that conscientiousness should be adaptive, especially in achievement contexts, but self-oriented perfectionism is a more extreme orientation that reflects hyperconscientiousness and a sense of being compelled or driven to be perfect. An important element here according to Albert Ellis (2002) is that perfectionism involves an irrational need to be perfect to the extent the perfectionist does not simply want to be perfect; rather, he or she must be perfect.

The key distinction between conscientiousness and hyperconscientious perfectionism was clearly illustrated in a study by Hurd (2006) of the factors associated with distance language learning. Hurd (2006) asked more than 500 students taking a course through Open University in the United Kingdom to indicate whether they were perfectionists and 30.3% of the respondents indicated that this applied to their personalities. In contrast, more than three fourths of the students described themselves with adjectives more akin to classical definitions of conscientiousness (i.e., persistent, enthusiastic, motivated, and systematic). Why is this distinction important? When these same respondents were asked to identify factors that are beneficial to distance language learning, only about one in six (17%) felt that perfectionism was beneficial to distance language learning. In contrast, more than three fourths of the respondents identified these same aspects of conscientiousness as advantageous to distance language learning. Thus, it is clear that most participants perceived a critical distinction between perfectionism and aspects of conscientiousness; conscientiousness is much more prevalent than perfectionism and was more widely recognized as beneficial when learning new languages.

The MPS created by Frost and associates (see Frost, Marten, Lahart, & Rosenblate, 1990) has six subscales that measure the personal aspects of perfectionism (i.e., personal standards, concern over mistakes, doubts about actions, organization) and the familial aspects of perfectionism (i.e., high parental expectations and parental criticisms). Extensive work has shown that the concern over mistakes subscale is the dimension that is linked most consistently with depressive symptoms and other forms of maladjustment. The main focus of past research has been on the concern over mistakes and doubts about actions dimensions, and these two dimensions seem particularly relevant to language learning anxiety. However, we should not discount the role of the other perfectionism trait dimensions.

Although our main emphasis is on levels of perfectionism, it is important to acknowledge that several cognitive tendencies that often accompany perfectionism likely contribute to language learning anxiety. These tendencies include seeing things in black-and-white terms and overgeneralizing failures so that mistakes reflect badly on the entire self (Hewitt & Flett, 1991). Perfectionists also tend to be highly attuned to social comparison feedback, so when statements are made such as “I feel like everyone except me understands perfectly” (Vogely, 1998, p. 80), the negative social comparisons really can be traced back to perfectionistic tendencies.

Parental pressures to be perfect can also contribute to language learning difficulties. Ran (2001) described some Chinese parents as having very high expectations of their children in a manner very much in keeping with the Frost et al. (1990) conceptualization and assessment of high parental expectations. This was described as “. . . the parental desire that the child should strive for perfection at all costs” (p. 320). Ran (2001) also provided a case illustration of Yang, a Chinese girl who was doing very well with English, but her father was concerned that Yang’s grammar was not perfect, so he requested extra work for her.

Although there has not been an explicit emphasis on parental criticism per se, more general research has documented the negative impact of parental pressure. Woodrow (2011) assessed 738 university students in China who were taking an English language course. The more anxious students reported higher levels of parental pressure, thus demonstrating the need to consider parental factors in models of perfectionism and language learning among students.

Clearly, when it comes to the Frost MPS dimensions, the most relevant dimension for our current purposes is the concern over mistakes dimension, given the hypersensitivity about making mistakes. The conceptual model we outline in greater detail later in this article incorporates a general trait concern over mistakes but also has an explicit focus on a domain-specific focus on concern over language mistakes. Such a measure is easily created by adapting a subset of the original MPS items from Frost et al. (1990) to specifically assess concern over mistakes in language learning.

Other elements of our proposed model are described and explained below. First, however, we briefly return to the work conducted by Gregersen and Horwitz (2002) to make one further point about trait dimensions of perfectionism. Recall that they found that the highly anxious participants were distinguished by having elevated levels of personal standards, anxiety about making mistakes, and fear of negative evaluation. We regard this as evidence supporting the role of self-oriented perfectionism (high personal standards), concern over mistakes, and socially prescribed perfectionism (pressure to be perfect manifest in fear over negative evaluation). In short, multiple trait dimensions are implicated in language learning anxiety and these various dimensions should be assessed empirically and included in conceptual accounts.

We now turn to a brief overview of research and theory on perfectionism cognitions. This work was conducted as a supplement to work on multidimensional trait perfectionism.

Perfectionistic Cognitions

Research in our laboratory on cognitive factors has focused on the development and applications of the Perfectionism Cognitions Inventory (PCI; Flett, Hewitt, Blankstein, & Gray, 1998). The PCI was created to assess the frequency of automatic thoughts that focus specifically on the attainment of ideal standards. The PCI is based on the premise that perfectionists who obsess about attaining perfectionism and who sense a discrepancy between their actual self and the ideal self, or their actual level of goal attainment and high ideals will tend to experience cognitions that reflect perfectionistic themes (see Flett et al., 1998). Flett et al. (1998) showed that there were individual differences in automatic, perfectionistic thoughts, and perfectionists with high levels of perfectionism cognitions are especially susceptible to negative affect in the form of depression about failure to attain perfection in the past, and anxiety about perhaps failing to attain perfection in the future. These thoughts are also linked with forms of cognitive distraction (e.g., mindwandering) that should make it difficult to learn new languages

In its current form, the PCI is a 25-item inventory with such statements as “I should be perfect” and “Why can’t I be perfect?” The PCI also differs from existing trait measures of perfectionism in that it is more of a state measure; that is, respondents indicate the thoughts experienced within the past week, and it is conceivable that these thoughts may vary as a function of changes in situational events. Two of the PCI items tap mistake rumination (e.g., “I can’t stand to make mistakes”; see Flett & Hewitt, 2014a) and this item content reflects the likelihood that language learners with cognitive forms of perfectionism will be cognitively preoccupied with mistakes that they have made in the past and mistakes they expect to make.

To our knowledge, existing published work has not examined the possible role of frequent automatic cognition about needing to be perfect in language learning anxiety. However, this aspect of the perfectionism construct should be related directly to the onset and persistence of worry about the possibility of not being perfect and making mistakes in performance settings. This aspect of perfectionism is the component that is most likely to be activated in situations that involve evaluative threat and the possibility of being revealed as less than perfect. Indeed, initial experimental research in achievement settings attests to the relevance of automatic thoughts about needing to be perfect in the state experience of worry and anxiety and other forms of emotional distress (see Besser et al., 2008).

In many respects, ongoing and frequent thoughts about needing to be perfect and falling short of perfect represent a palpable and chronic form of pressure. As such, this pressure has obvious negative implications for learning a new language. Thoughts such as “I must be perfect” and “I can’t keep making mistakes” should undermine the initial encoding and remembering of words and phrases, while also adding to a diminished sense of confidence.

The inclusion of a focus on the ongoing experience of perfectionistic automatic thoughts in a model of perfectionism and language learning is noteworthy because personality is typically represented as a distal factor in models of phenomena such as the willingness of language learners to communicate (e.g., MacIntyre, Dornyei, Clement, & Noels, 1998). However, perfectionism can be both a distal factor in terms of general trait and temperament characteristics as well as a more proximal factor when there is a specific emphasis on perfectionistic thoughts that are both frequently and recently experienced. Indeed, given that scores tend to have significant test–retest reliability, high scorers on the PCI can have a chronic form of thought activation that can have a substantial impact on current cognitive and affective experiences.

The third broad element of our proposed model is now described below. This component addresses the affective distress of perfectionists who are highly focused on how visible mistakes are interpreted and reacted to by other people.

Perfectionistic Self-Presentation

This segment focuses on individual differences in perfectionistic self-presentation. The general importance of self-presentational concerns was eloquently discussed by Yan and Horwitz (2008). They described the general concern that EFL learners in China have about how they will be perceived if they speak too much in class. Yan and Horwitz (2008) focused on the “double jeopardy” situation of the student who speaks too much but makes mistakes, thus earning the designation of “knowing nothing but liking to show off.”

Perfectionistic self-presentation involves a desire to present oneself as being flawless as well as a need to avoid displaying and disclosing imperfections (Hewitt et al., 2003). The concept of perfectionistic self-presentation grew out of observations that some perfectionists are characterized by a need to seem perfect in public. These same individuals often see themselves as far from perfect, and hide behind a mask by trying to seem exceptionally competent, perhaps to the point of being flawless. This need to seem perfect can have many ramifications and ways of being manifested in learning contexts. It is quite likely, for instance, that students grappling with learning a new language but who are overly concerned with the need to appear perfect will be unwilling to publicly try out new words and will not openly participate in classroom exercises that will reveal their inadequacies and uncertainties. This element was clearly apparent in one description of when “. . . anxious students feared that mistakes in speaking activities would destroy their social image as able students” (see Tsiplakides & Keramida, 2009, p. 41). The confident public image that is presented is often at variance with a hidden negative view of the self.

Perfectionistic self-presentation in adults is assessed by the 27-item Perfectionistic Self-Presentation Scale (PSPS); this measure has three subscales assessing perfectionistic self-promotion, the need to avoid appearing imperfect, and the need to avoid disclosing imperfections to others. Another version of this scale has been developed for use with children and adolescents. The Perfectionistic Self-Presentation Scale–Junior Form (PSPS-JR; Hewitt et al., 2011) is an 18-item scale that taps perfectionistic self-promotion, the nondisplay of imperfections, and the nondisclosure of imperfections. The development of this scale for use with children and adolescents is in keeping with descriptions of some children being high in public self-consciousness and displaying a “false front” that develops in an attempt to compensate for vulnerable self-esteem (see Elliott, 1982). This link with the concealment of imperfections may have strong implications for those who are struggling with learning a new language and who are focused on the consequences of making a mistake.

The concept of perfectionistic self-presentation in the form of nondisclosures and nondisplays of imperfections is very much in keeping with contemporary views of the process experienced by students learning a new language. It is well known that young English language learners typically go through a silent period as they get their bearings and mentally rehearse words and phrases. According to Chumak-Horbatsch (2012), the so-called “silent period” where young English language learners can often remain nonverbal for weeks or months is not actually put in place, so the learner can practice the new language silently and experiment privately with this second language. Rather, it is caused because these young learners have come to the realization that their way of speaking is not acceptable in the classroom. Thus, in the case of perfectionistic self-presenters, silence is driven by public self-consciousness and concerns about not being able to seem perfect. Accordingly, for all children, but especially for those who are preoccupied with possible mistakes, accepting the silent period as a part of language learning is unfair and damaging to young immigrant children (see Chumak-Horbatsch, 2012).

As noted above, language learning anxiety not been studied empirically in terms of its association with perfectionistic self-presentation, but separate lines of investigation with early adolescent and with university students has confirmed the robust links between perfectionistic self-presentation and social anxiety, including a fear of negative evaluation (see Flett, Coulter, & Hewitt, 2012; Hewitt et al., 2003). Importantly, it was also found here as well that self-presentational perfectionism predicts substantial unique variance in social anxiety beyond the variance attributable to trait perfectionism. Thus, perfectionistic self-presentation should also play a role in the onset and persistence of language learning anxiety and this seems to be supported by some of the case accounts described earlier. This claim is supported by the results of a recent study conducted with Chinese graduate students attending university in the United States. This study found sex differences with Chinese young men being particularly unwilling to take risks because of the possibility of making mistakes and having less tolerance in general for negative evaluations (see Cheng & Erben, 2012). It was concluded by the investigators that the main reason for the sex differences was the greater importance that the young men placed on making very positive social impressions.

Although the main focus of our proposed model is on levels of anxiety and associated language learning deficits, it should be noted that perfectionistic self-presentation represents an orientation that should be problematic once emotional and learning problems have materialized. Perfectionistic self-presentation has been linked with deficits in emotional self-regulation in terms of maladaptive coping tendencies and problem-solving orientations (Besser et al., 2010). A particular concern is that the tendency to not disclose imperfections has clear and negative implications for the help-seeking process, not only when it comes to seeking assistance from psychologists and counsellors but also in terms of not seeking support from peers. This unwillingness to disclose and to seek help should be particularly evident among those perfectionistic students who perceive that seeking help is really an open admission of their failure to attain perfection.

A Conceptual Model of Perfectionism and Language Learning Anxiety

Figure 1 displays our initial proposed model of perfectionism and language learning. We will not discuss in great detail the elements of the model that have already been outlined above (trait perfectionism dimensions, perfectionism cognitions, and perfectionistic self-presentation). However, this is perhaps a good point to reiterate the central importance afforded in this model to an excessive concern over mistakes made during language learning. The proposed model reflects our contention that trait perfectionism, perfectionistic cognitions, and perfectionistic self-presentation contribute directly to language learning anxiety (and likely related performance deficits) but they also operate through their link with language learning concern over mistakes. Thus, although personality factors are typically examined as broad dispositions that contribute distally to language learning anxiety, we feel that the constant hypersensitive focus on making mistakes and the consequences of making these mistakes represent a way in which perfectionism can have a more proximal impact than other personality factors. That is, specific concerns about mistakes made while trying to learn a new language can become a very proximal influence on those students who are highly focused on not making mistakes.

OPEN IN VIEWER

Figure 1.

Model of perfectionism and language learning.

The other key element represented in Figure 1 is the role of self-efficacy, especially as it relates to the situation of learning a new language. We have incorporated this element for two reasons. First, there are extensive reports of the negative self-beliefs and negative self-evaluations of language learners with high levels of anxiety and associated performance problems (see MacIntyre & Gardner, 1991). Although we have focused here on individual differences in self-efficacy in the form of self-perceived capabilities, the negative self can play a broader role in terms of the destructive impact of self-criticism, pessimism, and excessive public self-consciousness.

Second, we have included the self-efficacy component in recognition of the cogent two-factor model of perfectionism and social anxiety outlined by Alden, Ryder, and Mellings (2002). The essence of this model is that social anxiety is a joint function of both perfectionistic standards and a low sense of personal efficacy to achieve these standards. Alden et al. (2002) focused on trait perfectionism (i.e., socially prescribed perfectionism and concern over mistakes) in their model and did not adjust their model to reflect the other seeming relevant aspects of the construct, including plausible roles for perfectionistic self-presentation and perfectionistic automatic thoughts. Still, they did highlight the important role for individual differences in self-efficacy, and similar judgments about feeling inefficacious are particularly germane to language learning anxiety. The need to go beyond a consideration of perfectionism and include the self-efficacy element was clearly on display in the case excerpt introduced earlier that was provided by Yoshida (2013); recall that the perfectionistic student named Sandra reported that she no longer had problems with anxiety once she developed more self-confidence in her ability to learn new languages.

The model shown in Figure 1 represents language learning anxiety and performance as a joint function of perfectionism and self-efficacy. In addition, perfectionistic concern over mistakes operates directly but also indirectly through its proposed association with low self-efficacy.

Although this proposed model focuses primarily on the language learning, there is also an important role for contextual factors. Earlier descriptions of demanding Chinese parents signify the cultural pressures that certain students might experience. More directly, we must also allow for the impact that overly demanding, perfectionistic teachers who focus too much on deficits and mistakes can have on inducing language learning anxiety in all students but especially in those students who are vulnerable to perfectionistic demands.

Applied and Theoretical Implications

Next, we briefly consider some implications that follow from emphasizing the role of perfectionism in language learning anxiety and allowing for the multifaceted nature of the perfectionism construct. First, from an applied perspective, the model identifies several elements of perfectionism that can contribute to language learning anxiety. It is important to assess perfectionism with various measures and establish the levels of perfectionism that actually exist. Two perfectionists can have a comparable level of language learning anxiety but still vary substantially in their levels and types of perfectionism and the ways in which they are expressed.

Second, the proposed approach also points to various intervention targets. If a language learner is having difficulty controlling perfectionistic thoughts, then some type of intervention targeting these thoughts is indicated. Some initial research suggests that interventions incorporating an emphasis on lessening perfectionism in general and perfectionistic thoughts in general can be quite successful (Mitchell, Newall, Broeren, & Hudson, 2013; Nobel, Manassis, & Wilansky-Traynor, 2012)

Given the emphasis on the role of factors involving the self in our proposed model, there is a clear need to bolster the struggling learner’s sense of self. Anxiety and learning difficulties are largely driven by a preponderance of negative self-thoughts and a paucity of positive self-thoughts that combine to create low estimates of self-efficacy. This was illustrated in a recent detailed analysis of the tendencies of a self-critical perfectionist named Anita (see Mercer, 2015). Anita was a 21-year-old Austrian student trying to learn English. Mercer (2015) described “idiodynamic” data that were collected throughout the learning process. These data revealed how Anita experienced fluctuations ranging from self-doubt to self-confidence; overall, she tended to have mostly negative self-thoughts and relatively few positive self-thoughts. It is evident from this analysis that perfectionistic students are particularly vulnerable when they are confronted with uncertainty and they need to believe in specific strategies that will bolster their self-confidence.

Another key practical implication involving the self reflects self-presentational concerns. That is, if there is an excessive level of perfectionistic self-presentation, it may be necessary to structure and tailor learning opportunities by using alternative instructional methods in a manner that limits the degree of public shame and humiliation that is experienced. Perfectionistic students need environments that allow them to make mistakes without fear of negative evaluation, and they need to reduce their preoccupation with self-image goals. On a related note, perfectionistic students should benefit from technology-based literacy instruction that does not involve public displays of mistakes. Technology can emphasize the theme that learning should be the goal (see White & Gillard, 2011).

At the theoretical level, it is important to consider how an explicit focus on perfectionism can be incorporated into existing models. A comparative approach is clearly needed to ascertain the relative importance of perfectionism versus other personality factors that may be more or less relevant to language learning anxiety and language acquisition and performance deficits.

Another key theme at the theoretical level is a need for an expanded approach that considers individual differences from a developmental perspective. We need to know much more about the motives of perfectionistic language learners and the array of possible developmental factors that contributed to their perfectionism to get a better sense of why mistakes are so feared.

Developing a Positive and Accepting Orientation Toward Mistakes

The hypersensitivity that perfectionists have to making mistakes has clear implications in terms of the classroom orientation toward mistakes. Educators advocate creating an atmosphere in which mistakes are celebrated and no putdowns or criticisms are to be uttered. Within this context, teachers, counsellors, and psychologists can play a vital role in terms of modelling how they react to mistakes with self-compassion and self-acceptance rather than punitive self-criticism or pretending that the mistake never happened. It may be quite beneficial in school contexts to hold a class discussion that provides an opportunity for the teacher to discuss his or her philosophy about mistakes and how mistakes can actually advance the learning process. By extension, counsellors and psychologists can engage in extensive psychoeducation to foster a more positive orientation toward making mistakes and recovering from them. This would be in keeping with general recommendations for preventing the escalation of perfectionism and its consequences (see Flett & Hewitt, 2014b).

Ideally, feedback has an appropriate focus on acknowledging student successes and correct responses and does not stem from a deficit model focused excessively on highlighting errors and what must be corrected. Here, it should be noted that these general principles should be shared with parents because it is equally important that the home environment is not focused excessively on the mistakes made by students and meets with parental criticism. Extensive research on the parental criticism factor of the Frost MPS (Frost et al., 1990) has established that perceived exposure to parental criticism is associated with a host of negative outcomes, including various forms of maladjustment (e.g., Luthar, Shourn, & Brown, 2006; Yates, Tracy, & Luthar, 2008). Other research has established links between actual exposure to parental criticism in psychological distress and the development of dysfunctional perfectionism (see Clark & Coker, 2009).

Evaluative pressure often comes from peers in the form of forced social comparisons. Thus, it is important to find ways to limit social comparison opportunities and to discourage students from thinking along these lines. One approach is to seek opportunities to couch feedback in criterion-referenced formats that foster self-comparisons with reasonable standards rather than norm-referenced formats that promote evaluations of relative standing in the peer group.

Setting Reasonable Expectancies While Providing an Appropriate Level of Challenge

A frequently mentioned theme is that language learning and engagement in the process is undermined by having to contend with unrealistic expectations and standards (e.g., Tsui, 1996). It is natural to disengage from people who are overly demanding and leave someone with the sense that there is no way they can possibly please this person and meet expectations. Thus, expectation levels must be tailored to an appropriate level for each student. According to Cummins (2000), initial expectations should not be too cognitively challenging and must be accompanied by substantial support and put into contexts that help students understand.

Although it is important to not expect too much, it is also essential to keep an appropriate level of challenge (for a discussion, see Gibbons, 2009). It is important to find an appropriate balance; indeed, Cummins (2000) cautioned that students should rarely be participating in tasks where the cognitive challenge is low and there is little meaningful context. Typically, being placed in these situations leads to frustration and disengagement for all students. But perfectionists need some degree of challenge or they will lose interest; for instance, being assigned menial tasks (e.g., completing colouring sheets) will be interpreted as negative feedback or as not mattering by students who are highly attuned to social signals and evaluative cues.

Honouring First Languages and Bolstering a Positive and Unique Sense of Identity

It was stated earlier in our proposed model that a key element of language learning anxiety is having developed a lack of confidence and being too attuned to the perceived discrepancy between self-characteristics and what is actually expected or required. Efforts to instill a sense of confidence are vitally important for all students and this is especially the case for language learners who tend to be perfectionistic and have vulnerable self-esteem.

According to Coelho (2012), because students are highly attuned to social messages, especially when they are in situations characterized by uncertainty, it is important to convey the message that every student has potential and the goal is to create a culturally diverse classroom where diversity is regarded as a resource rather than a problem. Within this environment, positive recognition of first languages is crucial because L1 is an important component of personal and cultural identity, and is needed to maintain links to the extended family. A strong sense of identity and capability is needed rather than fostering a sense of inferiority that fuels perfectionistic tendencies.

According to Chumak-Horbatsch (2012), students and their origins need to be valued; in fact, the tendency to label children as “English learners” suggests that the classroom language is superior, and by extension, the student’s first language is inferior. Students should be treated as “emergent bilinguals” and the message sent that their first language capabilities are a strong positive characteristic to be admired rather than seen as a limitation.

Facilitating Social Engagement and Interaction Rather Than Isolation and Disconnection

A primary concern with students who are emergent bilinguals is that when they are overly concerned about making mistakes and lack confidence, it is almost inevitable that they will start to feel like outsiders, and this fosters social avoidance and lack of social interaction. Although this is the case in general, according to the perfectionism social disconnection model outlined by Hewitt, Flett, Sherry, and Caelian (2006), people who are high in interpersonal perfectionism are particularly likely to become isolated and alienated. This social disconnection may be subjective or objective, and is partly due to personal choices and partly due to the negative social reactions and responses exhibited when in the presence of people who are either overly self-promoting or disengaged and defensive due to concerns about making mistakes in public.

Given that perfectionism is linked with social disconnection and loneliness, it becomes important to keep perfectionistic emerging bilinguals engaged in social interactions. Various authors (e.g., Tsui, 1996) have recommended that students be placed in small groups rather than larger classroom contexts that offer the possibility of greater humiliation. Ideally, a student would be paired up with a peer who shares their first language. When presentations must be made, they are much less threatening when presented to a small group of peers who have been coached on being accepting and receptive.

The Need for Multiple and Varied Assessments

Finally, the assessment of language learners is inherently complex and, according to Cummins (2000), needs to distinguish between the social language that consists primarily of oral language used for social communication and meeting everyday needs, versus the cognitive academic language proficiency that is required for academic success. Although social language typically emerges and develops within the first 2 years of immersion in an English language environment, it can take several more years for academic language proficiency to become established (see Cummins, 2000). It is not uncommon for some students to have highly developed interpersonal communication skills and use these skills to deflect attention away from their academic language difficulties. Although no research has examined this issue within the context of perfectionism, this possibility is a particular concern for perfectionists who are invested in seeming perfect. That is, they may become highly focused on perfecting forms of communication that are within their capabilities while avoiding opportunities to develop capabilities that could reveal their weaknesses and limitations.

This possibility has clear assessment implications. Various forms of communication and communication skills must be assessed to get an overall picture of student strengths and weaknesses. Davies (2007) has made a strong case for using multiple forms of assessment (conversations, observations, and products). Assessment criteria should be shared with students according to the general theme that the assessments themselves represent learning opportunities. A key objective here is to assist the student in establishing reasonable goals and to develop the ability to assume responsibility for her or his own learning. While doing so, it is important to openly discuss why perfectionistic goals are not encouraged and to discourage all-or-none work styles and all-or-none self-evaluations that reduce outcomes to being either perfect successes or total failures. The importance of persisting when things are not going well can also be emphasized by recounting narratives of how famous people dealt with multiple initial failures (e.g., the multiple rejections received from publishers by J. K. Rowling before her great success).