Associations Between Elementary Students’ Victimization,Peer Belonging,Affect,Physical Activity,and Enjoyment by Gender During Recess

Abstract

School recess scholars have called for more research into collective relations between social, personal, and physical factors on students’ engagement and enjoyment of recess. Overall and by gender, this study serves to investigate a proposed model among 355 elementary school students from victimization to enjoyment through peer belonging, positive affect, and physical activity. Consenting students completed an online survey, and structural equation modeling (overall and in boys and girls) revealed an excellent fit of the data to the model (comparative fit index [CFI] and goodness of fit index [GFI] > .95, standardized root mean square residual [SRMR] < .08, root mean square error of approximation [RMSEA] < .10). Each of the path regression coefficients was significant (p < .001) except for between victimization and positive affect. Results by gender revealed that all factor loadings were significant for both males and females, and all pathways between factors were significant for males, whereas for females, all pathways were significant except from victimization to affect and from physical activity to enjoyment. Boys were also significantly higher in victimization and physical activity during recess. For enhanced recess enjoyment among elementary school students, some schools may need to better consider how to support students’ reciprocal needs for peer belonging, affect, physical activity, and reduced victimization.

Keywords

positive affect socioemotional bullying fun play

School recess is an important part of students’ educational learning and holistic development as positive and physically active recess experiences have been linked to cognitive, social, and physical benefits. For example, students tend to be more focused and attentive after having regular recess breaks from classroom instruction, which often corresponds with increased academic performance (Ramstetter, Murray, & Garner, 2010). This is especially so when students are physically active during recess because physically active play is associated with benefits such as elevated energy, memory, improved physiological function, and feelings of well-being (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2010). Consequently, various policy documents such as those of ParticipACTION (2015) in Canada have advocated for more active outdoor play opportunities for children and youth. Recess can also provide students with an important time to casually interact with their peers and to develop and enjoy friendships (Pellegrini & Bohn, 2004; Ramstetter et al., 2010). Despite the benefits of recess, research on recess in Canadian schools has documented some rather negative social climates (i.e., cliques, power struggles, bullying), conflict (i.e., altercations, fighting), and physical and socioemotional risk (i.e., injuries, exclusion, teasing) for students often due to inadequate supervision, opportunities, and a lack of suitable equipment or space (McNamara, 2013; McNamara, Lodewyk, & Franklin, 2018; McNamara, Vaantaja, Dunseith, & Franklin, 2014). This often additionally compromises meaningful social relations, physically active play, and positive emotions that often vary by gender in recess (London, Westrich, Stokes-Guinan, & McLaughlin, 2015; McNamara et al., 2014; Robert Wood Johnson Foundation, 2010; Vaillancourt et al., 2010).

The study is framed within social cognitive theory (Bandura, 1986) and its assertion that behavior is primarily a function of reciprocal interactions between personal (e.g., thoughts, feelings, and beliefs), social (e.g., peer relationships), and environmental (e.g., school climate) factors that a person self-regulates. In other words, motivated action depends, in large part, on what one believes and feels about themselves and their social and contextual circumstances and on the feedback derived from his or her behaviors. Within this framework, this study serves to investigate predictive relations between aspects of students’ behavior (physical activity) and socially situated personal feelings (victimization, belongingness, positive affect, and enjoyment) during school recess. The test of a proposed model linking these constructs is needed because of calls for more research (e.g., Ramstetter et al., 2010) into collective relations between social, personal, and physical factors on students’ engagement and enjoyment of recess. Joint investigation of how victimization, peer belonging, positive affect, and physical activity interact to potentially influence recess enjoyment in elementary school students would contribute to current recess theory. Hence, this study serves to investigate a proposed model (see Figure 1) among students in Grade 4 to 8 (overall and by gender) beginning with victimization and proceeding to peer belonging, positive affect, enjoyment, physical activity, and culminating in enjoyment.

Figure 1.

Structural equation modeling of the overall sample.

These constructs and their relevance to recess are now briefly explained. First, victimization is defined by Olweus (1993) as “repeated exposure to purposeful attempts to injure or inflict discomfort and pain on another individual through words, physical contact, gestures, or exclusion from a group” (p. 1). As many as 20% to 25% of school students report bullying, being a victim of bullying, or both (Juvonen & Graham, 2014), and this tends to be highest during recess (Vaillancourt et al., 2010). Experiencing victimization can have long-term influences on students’ performance, health, and well-being (Langford et al., 2015). Second, positive affect refers to one being in a generally upbeat mood state, synonymous with experiencing positive feelings such as enthusiasm, alertness, happiness, attentiveness, safety, acceptance, confidence, and pride (Watson, Clark, & Tellegen, 1988). Third, Baumeister and Leary (1995) report that humans have an innate need for developing and maintaining supportive social connections that contribute to feeling connected, accepted, and understood by friends. They define this need to belong as “a pervasive drive to form and maintain at least a minimum quantity of lasting, positive, and significant interpersonal relationships” (p. 497). An important aspect of general belongingness is social connectedness—one’s belongingness connection to a small group in social situations—that can relate specifically to a group such as peers or friends (peer belonging; Malone, Pillow, & Osman, 2012). A study by Woods, Graver, and Daum (2012) revealed that all in their sample of 115 third- and fourth-grade students emphasized the importance of sharing recess with their friends. Fourth, physical activity levels in students have been positively linked to higher grades, attendance, attentiveness, cognitive functioning, and less disruptive behavior in class (Fortson et al., 2013). Finally, enjoyment is a “positive affective state that reflects generalized feelings such as pleasure, liking, and fun” (Scanlan & Simons, 1992, p. 203).

The Proposed Structural Model

In the proposed structural model (Figure 1), victimization is expected to negatively predict both positive affect and peer belonging during recess. Research has reported troublesome social patterns during recess that include exposure to verbal, physical, and social bullying, rendering it more challenging for victimized students to enjoy positive and meaningful social interactions and physically active play during recess (London et al., 2015; McNamara et al., 2014; Robert Wood Johnson Foundation, 2010; Vaillancourt et al., 2010). For example, many children experience fear during recess because of the bullying and conflict that is so pervasive (McNamara, Colley, & Franklin, 2017; Vaillancourt et al., 2010). Victims of bullying in schools are prone to a lowered self-esteem, missing more school, performing worse academically, having compromised social relationships (i.e., worse relationships with and more difficulty making friends), feeling more afraid, anxious, and lonely; and having a higher risk of substance abuse, illness, depression, and thought of suicide (Carney & Merrell, 2001; Gere & MacDonald, 2010; Hansen, Steenberg, Palic, & Elklit, 2012). It is important to note, however, that victimization may not predict reduced positive affect during recess in children for whom victimization does not affect peer belonging (i.e., have a strong enough peer support group). For example, some relevant research has linked school belonging more to student–student relationships than to perceived violence (Cemalcilar, 2010). Other research (McNamara et al., 2018) has reported associations between belongingness and victimization and negative affect.

Peer belonging is also expected to predict positive affect in the model because of the compelling evidence for the importance of supportive friendships on, for example, laughter, companionship, well-being, health, and positive feelings such as calm, happiness, and joy (Baumeister & Leary, 1995; Eisenberger & Cole, 2012). Belongingness has been linked to experiencing positive emotions such as pleasure and fulfillment and feeling less rejected and excluded, which are associated with negative feelings such as anxiety and loneliness (Gere & MacDonald, 2010). Similar findings have been found in school-based research. For example, social connectedness and belongingness tend to coincide with reduced stress hormone levels and elevations in positive affective constructs such as enthusiasm, happiness, interest, and confidence (Osterman, 2000). In one study (Cemalcilar, 2010), school belonging was more strongly predicted by students’ satisfaction with their social relationships at school (with peers, teachers, and administrators) than with various structural aspects (physical features, supporting resources, perceived violence) about the school environment.

Physical activity during recess enhances students’ physical activity levels during the school day and tends to foster improved motor and socioemotional skills such as sharing and problem-solving (Fortson et al., 2013; Murray et al., 2013). The prediction of physical activity by positive affect in the model is justified because of evidence on the importance of social factors (e.g., team cohesion, friendships) and features of positive affect (e.g., confidence) in motivated physical activity and sports participation (Hairul, Grove, & Whipp, 2008; McAuley, Jerome, Elavsky, Marquez, & Ramsey, 2003; Smith & St. Pierre, 2009). Furthermore, higher levels of the neuroticism (low emotional stability) personality trait have been consistently linked to lower levels of physical activity and exercise participation and adherence.

Further in the model, enjoyment is hypothesized to be predicted by positive affect, peer belonging, and physical activity because enjoyment has also been strongly and consistently associated with positive affect (Pringle, 2010) and belongingness (Osterman, 2000) in social-play settings such as recess. Although there is a well-established link in children and youth between enjoyment and physical activity in many settings (e.g., Baron & Downey, 2007; Motl et al., 2001; Smith & St. Pierre, 2009), a recess-based review by Ridgers, Salmon, Parrish, Stanley, and Okely (2012) noted inconsistent associations and a paucity of studies investigating links between these constructs. Since then, some studies (e.g., Hyndman & Lester, 2015) have revealed positive associations, whereas others (e.g., Hyndman & Chancellor, 2015) have asserted that active-during-play activities and those of a higher physical intensity (i.e., tag games and climbing activities) were most enjoyed during recess in both boys and girls, whereas relatively sedentary activities (i.e., sitting, creating/making things, resting/relaxing) were their least enjoyable. They assert that such physical activity opportunities could positively influence recess enjoyment especially in concert with the elevated autonomy students experience during recess compared with the classroom. Hence, similar to findings in physical education (e.g., Baron & Downey, 2007; Smith & St. Pierre, 2009) and sports (e.g., Macphail, Gorley, & Kirk, 2003) wherein students’ enjoyment is prone to vary according to levels and forms of physical activity, physical activity is expected to predict recess enjoyment in this study.

Differences by Gender

A secondary aim of this study is to assess gender differences in the constructs (victimization, positive affect, peer belonging, physical activity, and enjoyment) and in the proposed model because students’ needs, experiences, and preferences during elementary school recess often vary between boys and girls. Such differences often add to the challenge of ensuring that students have positive educational recess experiences (Doll, Murphy, & Song, 2003) and might reflect a gendered school culture that constrains some behaviors, interactions, and opportunities in some (McNamara et al., 2014). For example, although bullying tends to peak in Grades 6 to 9 (age 13-15) and is more common in boys than girls, boys tend to have higher rates of direct (physical) bullying, and rates of indirect (verbal and social) bullying are similar across gender (Archer & Coyne, 2005; Boulton, Chau, Whitehand, Amataya, & Murray, 2009). Although Cemalcilar (2010) found no gender differences in school belonging, social connections during recess (including to their teachers) tend to matter more to girls than boys (Holmes, 2012). During recess, girls also tend to be less physically active than boys (Ridgers, Timperio, Crawford, & Salmon, 2012), whereas boys are more likely to play competitive team-oriented games (Roberts, Fairclough, Ridgers, & Porteous, 2013). Girls tend to be less emotionally, socially, and cognitively drawn to competitive, performance-based, team sport opportunities than boys (O’Brien, Martin-Ginis, & Kirk, 2008; Smith & St. Pierre, 2009). Knowing more about how levels of and relationships between victimization, peer belonging, positive affect, physical activity, and enjoyment differ between boys and girls during recess in this study should help researchers and professionals understand more about how these constructs might collectively enhance or undermine the enjoyment of both boys and girls within some school recess environments.

Research Questions

The main aim of the study is to discover more about sociopersonal factors (victimization, belongingness, positive affect, and physical activity) in elementary school students’ enjoyment of recess and how they differ by gender. Within this aim are the following four specific research questions.

Research Question 1: What are the overall and gender-specific levels of victimization, positive affect, peer belonging, physical activity, and enjoyment during recess?

Research Question 2: Are there significant differences between girls and boys in each of these constructs?

Research Question 3: In the overall sample, do the data fit a proposed model (see Figure 1) from victimization to positive affect through peer belonging, and from peer belonging, positive affect, and physical activity to enjoyment?

Research Question 4: Does the fit of the model and each of the path (regression) coefficients differ between boys and girls?

Method

Participants and Procedures

The sample for this study consisted of 355 students in Grades 4 through 8 from seven elementary schools in one school district of southern Ontario. Consenting participants completed an anonymous 36-item online survey about their recess experiences, although 13 of the items were for purposes beyond this study. Outliers (n = 5) were identified and deleted using excessive Mahalanobis distance values as recommended by Tabachnick and Fidell (2006) so the final sample was 350 students (184 or 52.6% girls, 166 or 47.4% boys) enrolled in Grades 4 (n = 61), 5 (n = 84), 6 (n = 37), 7 (n = 83), and 8 (n = 85). A “balanced day” schedule was followed by each school, whereby students have a 20-min “nutrition break” (students eat snack/lunch at their desks) and then later in the day have a 20-min “fitness break” to go outside for recess if the weather is suitable.

A university ethics committee, participating school board, and school principals provided ethical approval for the research, and consent/assent was provided by participating students and their parents. The online survey was completed using surveymonkey.com and was administered by a trained research assistant. It was completed by students in their school’s library or computer lab (one student per computer), during regular class time, and with the presence (school board policy) and assistance (if necessary) of the research assistant or teacher (for login or language clarification).

Authenticity was enhanced by having survey items from existing measures previously used with both males and females in elementary school recess in similar settings (e.g., McNamara et al., 2018). In the consent/assent forms, participating students and their parents were also told about the purpose of the study and relevance of any results from it. Responses were downloaded by the lead researcher into an Excel file and then transferred to SPSS for statistical analyses.

Measures

The first four items of the survey asked students to report demographic information about, for example, their gender, grade, and school. Each of the scale items was scored on a 5-point Likert-type scale (1 = never, 2 = rarely, 3 = sometimes, 4 = most of the time, 5 = all of the time). The mean of each of the items was computed for each scale.

Victimization

Victimization during outside recess was assessed by three items: physical (“I have been hit, kicked, or pushed by others on purpose during outside recess”), verbal (“During outside recess, I have been teased [made fun of] because of what I believe, look like, or say”), and social (“During outside recess, it seems like others ignore and exclude me on purpose”) victimization. These items have been used previously (e.g., Volk & Lagzdins, 2009) to assess victimization including in recess (McNamara et al., 2018) with satisfactory internal consistency coefficients (α reliability = .75-.82) and other indices of validity (e.g., significantly and negatively correlated with school enjoyment and grades).

Physical activity level

Physical activity level during outside recess was assessed using the four-item physical activity self-report scale also used previously in research (e.g., Lodewyk & Mandigo, 2017) with the wording modified slightly to apply to the recess setting of this study. A sample item is “During outside recess, I am really physically active,” and the scale’s alpha reliability coefficient in this study was .86. Self-reported physical activity level has been used frequently in research with satisfactory alpha reliability (>.70) and validity. For example, Haapala et al. (2014) measured five forms of students’ physical activity during recess and reported strong and positive correlations (r = .51-.64) with objectively measured school day sedentary, light, and moderate-to-vigorous physical activity.

Positive affect

For positive affect, four items (“happy,” “safe,” “excited,” and “confident”) deemed to be most generally relevant to recess and to the developmental level of the participants in this study were selected from an established 10-item positive affect scale (Watson et al., 1988). For example, items such as attentive and proud were omitted, whereas active and accepted were not used because they closely aligned with the peer belonging and physical activity–level constructs in this study. The items had a scale alpha reliability of .70. A similar four-item scale (α = .74) has been used previously with children in a recess setting (McNamara et al., 2018).

Peer belonging

Five items were used to measure peer belonging (α = .76). Four of the items were peer connection items from the Belongingness in Recess Scale (McNamara et al., 2018). These items were as follows:

I have friends during outdoor recess; I feel that I have friends that I can turn to in times of need during outdoor recess; I can be myself during outdoor recess; and I get along well with others during outside recess.

The remaining peer belonging item (“I am included by others during recess.”) was adapted for recess from the Relatedness to Others in Physical Activity Scale (Wilson & Bengoechea, 2010).

Enjoyment

Two of the three items from the Physical Activity Enjoyment Scale (Arias-Estero, Castejón, & Yuste, 2013) were adapted for recess and used (the interest item was not used) to measure recess enjoyment. These items were “I enjoy outside recess” and “I like outside recess,” and the scale alpha reliability was .78.

To ensure the relative independence of the enjoyment, peer belonging, and positive affect scales, an exploratory factor analysis (principal axis with oblimin rotation extracting three factors) was performed on the 11 items. The three emerging factors accounted for 61.61% of the variance and each item loaded (.46-.86) onto its appropriate scale/factor: positive affect (42.35% of the variance, eigenvalue = 4.65), enjoyment (11.15% of the variance, eigenvalue = 1.23), and peer belonging (8.11% of the variance, eigenvalue = 0.89).

Data Analysis

Except for using EQS 6.1 to perform structural equation modeling, each statistical analysis was performed using the SPSS (Version 22.0). Variables were first screened for normality and then descriptive statistics, alpha reliability coefficients (α), and Pearson bivariate correlation coefficients were computed. A multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) procedure was used to assess differences in each of the variables between genders. The fit of the study variables using structural equation modeling applied robust maximum likelihood estimation, and the first measured variable loading on a given factor was constrained. All other factor loadings and interfactor paths were free to vary.

Results

The scale and item data had normal distributions (i.e., kurtosis, skew) and revealed no signs of multicollinearity (Tabachnick & Fidell, 2006). The descriptive statistics, alpha reliability coefficients (α), and Pearson bivariate correlation coefficients are presented in Table 1. Multicollinearity was assessed through the tolerance and Durbin–Watson statistics, with tolerance values higher than 0.2 and Durbin–Watson values close to 2.0, alleviating concern of multicollinearity (Field, 2017). There were no instances in the data of tolerance lower than 0.3 and the Durbin–Watson statistic of 2.16, indicating that the residuals were uncorrelated. Each bivariate correlation was significant (p < .01), in the expected direction (positive in each, except in relation to victimization), and moderate (r > .33, except for between victimization and physical activity; r = −.16; Tabachnick & Fidell, 2006). Overall and in both boys and girls, victimization was moderately low (<2.01) and peer belonging and recess enjoyment were moderately high (>4.00) based on the 5-point scale.

Table 1.

Descriptive Statistics and Bivariate Correlations.

Variable	M	SD	1	2	3	4	5
1. Victimization (α = .80)
Overall sample	1.88	0.87	—
Girl’s sample	1.75	0.78	—
Boy’s sample	2.01	0.94	—
2. Peer belonging (α = .76)
Overall sample	4.15	0.71	−.58**	—
Girl’s sample	4.24	0.62	−.51**	—
Boy’s sample	4.05	0.78	−.51**	—
3. Positive affect (α = .70)
Overall sample	3.95	0.71	−.37**	.55**	—
Girls sample	3.97	0.66	−.39**	.49**	—
Boy’s sample	3.93	0.76	−.36**	.60**	—
4. Physical activity (α = .86)
Overall sample	3.68	0.92	−.16**	.31**	.46**	—
Girl’s sample	3.49	0.91	−.12	.33**	.48**	—
Boy’s sample	3.89	0.88	−.28**	.38**	.47**	—
5. Enjoyment (α = .78)
Overall sample	4.06	0.78	−.33**	.53**	.60**	.55**	—
Girl’s sample	4.00	0.71	−.24**	.53**	.59**	.48**	—
Boy’s sample	4.13	0.85	−.43**	.56**	.61**	.63**	—

Note. N = 350 in the overall sample (n = 184 girls and 166 boys).

p < .05. **p < .01.

Second, the MANOVA results revealed a main effect difference in the constructs as a function of gender: F(5, 344) = 8.14, p < .001, η² = .106. Boys were significantly higher in victimization (F(1, 348) = 7.99, p = .005, η² = .022) and physical activity (F(1, 348) = 16.99, p < .001, η² = .047), whereas girls were higher in peer belonging: F(1, 348) = 6.35, p = .012, η² = .018. There was no gender difference in enjoyment (p = .114) or positive affect (p = .621).

Third, to test the fit of the data to the proposed model, indices of an excellent fit (Hu & Bentler, 1999) were .95 and above on the comparative fit index (CFI), .08 or less for the standardized root mean square residual (SRMR), and .10 or less for the root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA; Browne & Cudeck, 1993). The structural equation modeling analysis for the overall sample produced the following indices: (χ²(128) = 362.08, p > .05; CFI = .92; SRMR = .057; RMSEA = .072). All factor loadings with all latent factors were significant (p < .05), and all hypothesized pathways between latent factors were significant (p < .05) except for the pathway from victimization to affect (.25). The model is presented in Figure 1.

Finally, structural equation modeling assessing whether the gender-specific data fit the proposed model revealed an excellent fit of the model to the data for both boys (Figure 2) and girls (Figure 3). The goodness of fit indices were χ²(128) = 268.30, p > .05; CFI = .91; SRMR = .064; RMSEA = .082 for boys; and χ²(128) = 247.11, p > .05; CFI = .91; SRMR = .069; RMSEA = .071 for girls. All factor loadings were significant for both males and females; all pathways between factors were significant for males, whereas for females, all pathways were significant except from victimization to affect (.03) and from physical activity to enjoyment (.08). These models are shown in Figures 2 and 3.

Figure 2.

Structural equation modeling for boys.

Figure 3.

Structural equation modeling for girls.

Discussion

The aim of this study was to assess (overall and by gender) a proposed model from victimization to positive affect through peer belonging, and from peer belonging, positive affect, and physical activity to enjoyment in elementary school recess. The results by research question revealed that (overall and in both boys and girls) victimization was moderately low and peer belonging and recess enjoyment were moderately high based on a 5-point scale. There was a main gender effect difference in the constructs, with boys significantly higher in victimization and physical activity and girls higher in peer belonging. Overall, there was an excellent fit of the data to the model and each pathway statistically significant (p < .001), except for between victimization and positive affect. Furthermore, outdoor recess enjoyment was strongly predicted by peer belonging, physical activity, and positive affect. Finally, the most notable difference by gender in the model was that the paths from victimization to affect and from physical activity to enjoyment were significant in boys and not in girls.

The fit of the data to the model signaled that being a victim of bullying during recess may not directly compromise positive affect and may be more likely when children have compromised levels of peer belonging during recess. Despite other research revealing associations between victimization, dysfunctional social dynamics, and lower positive affect (Carney & Merrell, 2001; Gere & MacDonald, 2010; Hansen et al., 2012), this study highlights the negative effects of victimization on peer belonging (i.e., peer acceptance and support) and positive affect (in males) and of compromised peer belonging on positive affect during recess. Perhaps, the experience of peer belonging may help children to be more resistant and resilient toward victimization, thereby elevating their positive affect during recess (or vice versa). Future research should explicitly test such a moderating (buffering) relationship because McNamara et al. (2018) reported that belongingness and negative affect predicted victimization, whereas positive affect did not. Future studies should also study both positive and negative affects jointly with the other constructs in this study.

The finding that peer belonging, physical activity, and positive affect each simultaneously predicted outdoor recess enjoyment was a novel contribution to the recess literature; although, recess enjoyment has been separately linked to levels of physical activity (Hyndman & Lester, 2015), positive affect (Pringle, 2010), and belongingness (Osterman, 2000) during recess and in other settings (Hairul et al., 2008; Smith & St. Pierre, 2009). Unfortunately, too many students do not experience the necessary positive affect, belongingness, or active and playful physical activity levels during school recess, which can be particularly problematic if the effects are cumulative over time (McNamara et al., 2018; Osterman, 2000). Although we know much about what children do not enjoy about school recess (e.g., lack of space, equipment, conditions, opportunities, and staff supervision and support; McNamara, 2013; Vaillancourt et al., 2010), this study provides fresh insight into the joint importance of physical activity and positive socioemotional feelings for enjoyment of recess in Grades 4 to 8 students.

Relations between victimization and enjoyment and between peer belonging and physical activity were not part of the theoretical model being proposed and tested in this study, although there were significant bivariate correlations in the expected directions between them in this study. Previous research has also reported a significantly negative correlation between recess enjoyment and victimization (e.g., Boulton et al., 2009) and a positive association between peer relationships at school and physical activity during recess (Haapala et al., 2014). Physical activity and the motivation for it has been linked to socioemotional constructs such as group cohesion, friends, enjoyment, and confidence (Haapala et al., 2014; Hairul et al., 2008; Murray et al., 2013; Smith & St. Pierre, 2009). Including the test of association between these constructs should be added to future research investigating new and similar recess-based models.

Finally, the results were similar between boys and girls with the following exceptions. First, boys were higher than girls in victimization and physical activity, whereas girls had higher peer belonging. This corroborates some previous research (e.g., Olweus, 1993) revealing that boys tend to experience more victimization and physical activity during recess than girls (Ridgers, Salmon, et al., 2012), particularly in the form of more competitive team-oriented games (Roberts et al., 2013). Meanwhile, girls are more prone to favor socioemotional interpersonal connections during recess (O’Brien et al., 2008; Smith & St. Pierre, 2009), especially to their friends (Woods et al., 2012), and to their teachers (Holmes, 2012). Adolescence may pose a particularly challenging time for girls because their level of physical activity, fitness, physical self-concept, and body satisfaction decreases more than boys during this developmental phase (Evans, 2002). Second, in this study, the path coefficients from victimization to positive affect and from physical activity to enjoyment were significant (p < .001) in boys (.45, .36), not in girls (.03, .08). This may signal that during recess, reduced victimization may be more of a factor on boys’ experience of positive affect than girls, whereas physical activity may be more important to recess enjoyment in boys than in girls. More research is needed to identify specific recess needs and preferences of both boys and girls to maximize the necessary peer belonging, positive affect, and physical activity for optimal enjoyment during recess.

Limitations and Future Research

Although there are considerable strengths to this study, there are some limitations worth mentioning. First, although the aim of this study was to assess the fit of the data to the proposed model, it is acknowledged that some of the pathways in the model could also be bidirectional rather than unidirectional. Second, because the data are cross sectional, causal interpretations are not possible. A third limitation of the study is that the sample of this study represented several developmental periods (i.e., Grades 4-6 and 7 and 8) so the data were not analyzed by specific ages. Finally, differences in, for example, age, socioeconomic status, ethnicity, and family dynamics were not controlled for across school and board or region and should be in future research. This is because, for example, Cemalcilar (2010) reported that pleasing peer relationships had a direct effect on school belonging among students in the low not the high socioeconomic areas. Knowing more about how the variables of study in this study differ across a variety of recess contexts in future research would also be beneficial because each of the constructs in this study has been linked to many other availing outcomes such as academic success (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2010; Osterman, 2000; Phan, 2013; Wang & Holcombe, 2010). To illustrate, adding the insights and experiences of principals and school staff and certain marginalized groups (i.e., students with special needs) could deepen the findings of this study.

Relationship to the Practice of School Psychology

This study adds important new information for school psychology pertaining to structural relations between victimization, peer belonging, positive affect, physical activity, and enjoyment in elementary school recess. Implications of this study for practice include the need for school psychologists to help schools better design recess to increase students’ enjoyment by reducing victimization and facilitating their need for peer belonging, positive affect, and physical activity. Research (e.g., McNamara, 2013; Vaillancourt et al., 2010) has signaled some ways that this might be done (e.g., providing more space, equipment, variety, and choices of structured and unstructured play and social activities to better accommodate the varying needs and preferences of students at recess, and increasing supervision to reduce incidences of social conflict and bullying). School psychologists could also contribute by being aware of children who dislike recess and might also be experiencing victimization and compromised peer belonging, affect, and physical activity during recess. Furthermore, knowing that the data fit the proposed structural model in both boys and girls in this study and that victimization may have more of a role on reduced positive affect in boys, whereas enjoyment could be more dependent on physical activity in boys than girls, is also noteworthy. These and other recommendations have also been advocated in policy statements such as Canada’s ParticipACTION (2015) and the Society for Health and Physical Educators in America’s Guide for Recess Policy (SHAPE America, 2016). Together, the results of this study should help educational psychologists along with educational researchers, administrators, and practitioners to better recognize some important signals of school recess enjoyment (or a lack thereof) in boys and girls.

Footnotes

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

ORCID iD

Ken R. Lodewyk

Author Biographies

Ken R. Lodewyk is an associate professor in the Department of Kinesiology at Brock University in Ontario, Canada. His areas of research include pedagogy, physical literacy, and psychosocial factors in movement.

Lauren McNamara is a researcher at the Diversity Institute within the Ted Rogers School of Management at Ryerson University in Toronto, Canada. She is also the founder and director of Recess Project Canada.

Philip Sullivan is a professor in the Department of Kinesiology at Brock University in Ontario, Canada. He researches psychological dynamics within sport and coaching.

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