The anti-piracy activities of the Nguyen Dynasty in the South China Sea,1802–1858

Introduction

Maritime security is an important component of national, regional and global security, and has a significant impact on land security. Vietnam has been no exception. Pirates became a significant and concerning security risk for the feudal dynasties of Vietnam, including the Nguyen Dynasty. Increasing piracy seriously threatened the survival of boats and foreigners. In the first half of the nineteenth century, before 1858 when the French colonialists officially invaded Vietnam, the Nguyen Dynasty was autonomous in responding to and resolving the problem. This article explores what the Nguyen Dynasty did to ensure the security and safety of the South China Sea. Its actions in ensuring the security and safety of navigation for vessels travelling there (including the Paracel Islands and the Spratly Islands) is one of the most vivid illustrations of an international spirit, and of a dynasty exercising its real sovereignty in the South China Sea. These are the key issues on which this article focuses.

Based on original sources, especially the materials left by the National Historian Office of the Nguyen Dynasty, this article offers a comprehensive reappraisal of naval aggression and plundering in the South China Sea of Vietnam during the first half of the nineteenth century. It also records the responses to the marine invaders by the Nguyen Dynasty. From there, the article draws on the coping strategies that the Nguyen Dynasty applied to counter the piracy problem, and assesses the results. Finally, it compares the Nguyen Dynasty’s behaviour in dealing with piracy with the principles of territorial possession in international law, and offers conclusions regarding Vietnam’s possession of the vast South China Sea, including the Paracel and Spratly Islands.

The South China Sea and the risks from the sea

The ‘South China Sea’ refers simply to the sea bordering the eastern coast of Vietnam. The Nguyen Dynasty was officially established in 1802, governing a unified territorial sea originating from the first three ancient nations (Van Lang – Au Lac in the North, Lam Ap – Champa in the centre, and Phu Nam in the South). Thus, the concept of the South China Sea in Vietnam encompasses the sea running along the entire eastern face of the country, extending from Mong Cai at the northernmost end to Ca Mau cape at the southernmost, and encompassing all of the coastal islands, including the Paracel and Spratly Islands. This concept remains common currency.

The South China Sea refers to one of the largest seas in the world, a bridge connecting the Southeast Asian mainland to the Southeast Asian islands, and the Pacific Ocean and the Indian Ocean. ¹ The South China Sea is surrounded by 10 countries and territories, including Vietnam, China, the Philippines, Malaysia, Brunei, Indonesia, Thailand, Cambodia, Singapore, and Taiwan. Geo-politician Nicolas Spykman dubbed the South China Sea the ‘Mediterranean of Asia’. ² From an early stage it attracted foreign ships for trade, and the development of ports within the area attracted foreign merchants. Initially, they were Malaysian, Persian, and Arab merchants. These were followed by Japanese merchants, European merchants such as the Portuguese (during the sixteenth century), British (from the eighteenth century), Swedish, Dutch, French, German; and merchants from the USA. ³ Increasing mercantile activity attracted predators. The Paracel Islands, or the Paracels, a group of small islands west of the mainland, ⁴ constituted an ideal hiding place for pirates, seriously threatening the security and safety of both seafarers and coastal peoples, and adversely affecting the political security and the social order of the dynasties.

The pirates were very diverse, including Vietnamese, Europeans, Wokou (Japanese pirates), Do Ba pirates (also called Cha Va, originating from India, Malaysia, and Indonesia today), Tau O pirates (from China), and others. The most common were the Tau O pirates, the pirates from China also known as the Qing pirates or Te Ngoi pirates. ⁵

The pirates had diverse origins. Some were fishermen in coastal regions and islands, whilst others were down-and-out traders or sailors, criminals wanted on land, or refugees. When the Qing Dynasty in China took over the government, many people who wanted to recover the Ming Dynasty had no land on which to live, because the Qing government pursued them vigorously. They had to leave their homeland, and many of them gathered into pirate groups operating in multiple locations around the maritime borders of China and some neighbouring countries, including Vietnam. In addition, the oppression and exploitation of the Qing Dynasty drove some poor Chinese to become bandits and pirates, or to go to the South, including Vietnam, and loot to earn a living. ⁶ From here, the pirate alliance formed a large group, numbering hundreds under the command of the pirate leaders. ⁷

When the Nguyen Dynasty took power, although its policies towards foreign merchants became more restrictive, they remained preferable to Chinese merchants. On the one hand, the Nguyen Dynasty used Chinese trading as a tool to offset the difficulties accessing goods from China embargoed by the Qing Dynasty. On the other, it also encouraged Chinese traders to come to new lands, reclaiming the markets and towns. Therefore, the Tau O pirates had more opportunities than pirates form other countries. The frequent danger from the Tau O pirates was clearly reflected by Tsuboi, who wrote:

Tau O invaders often attacked Vietnamese boats carrying rice, especially from May to July, before the harvest or docked in Vietnam to rob food, kidnap women and children. In the end, the Vietnamese-Chinese frontiers were full of Chinese bandits who took money from boats travelling down the Red River or looted money and food from the people. ⁸

Piracy was thus a real threat to the security, political stability and economic security of Vietnam and the other countries concerned. Pirates not only plundered belongings but also kidnapped women and children, collected money from passing vessels in the manner of highwaymen, and directly threatened the lives of seafarers. It is worth mentioning that many Vietnamese merchants and fishermen were also involved in these Chinese pirate teams. ⁹ The fear of pirates was always in the mind of the Nguyen rulers at that time, as profoundly described by the officer of the Nguyen Dynasty, Nguyen Truong To:

‘Sea invasion is a common threat to the whole country, this is a long-term problem, we do not know when it comes to an end; of course, it is a persistent enemy. Other kinds of invaders also have the time of death, but these sea aggressors are hereditary. Our country is disturbed; we can gradually get out if it only lasts a few years, if just a few times, we can find a way to catch them. But they come and go not in one or two years, robbing and killing not just once or twice. The losses of public and private belongings every year are tens of thousands, trade is stalled, goods are stagnant; this is really a great harm to the people. Is the damage great over the years? People in the coastal area… have been robbed by them for many years and became extremely poor’ ¹⁰

Facing this problem, what policies did the Nguyen government apply to prevent and combat piracy forces in the South China Sea to protect the security and safety of the sea?

Anti-piracy activities of the Nguyen Dynasty, 1802–1858

To carry out anti-piracy activities, the Nguyen Dynasty realised that it needed much more detailed knowledge of the region. Without understanding the geography of the sea and the islands, the dynasty could not effectively patrol or hunt marine invaders. Thus, beginning in September 1806, King Gia Long finished the book Unified Geographical Gazetteer of Vietnam, which carefully recorded the status and characteristics of rivers and estuaries. In the first half of the nineteenth century, the Nguyen Dynasty also continuously sent explorers to survey the seaports and seaways under the command of the officers in charge of the estuaries. In January 1813, King Gia Long commanded the officials to survey the estuaries to discern the depth and breadth of each. In addition, each year in spring and winter, they drew maps and submitted them to the Ministry-in-charge, who brought the maps to the navy. The navy crews then indicated which areas were dangerous and which were not. ¹¹ In February 1815, King Minh Menh commanded that Pham Quang Anh lead a team to the Paracel Islands for sea exploration. In March 1816, Minh Menh again ordered the officials of townships to measure the sea distances and draw maps for submission, and commanded a Marine Corps and Paracel Islands team to continue to explore waterways. In January 1836, the king ordered Pham Huu Nhat to bring the Marine Corps to cross Quang Ngai, directly to the Paracel Islands, ‘no islands, no dunes, no reefs, no shoals, and no rocky cliffs are omitted; The shape of the place is dangerous or not, the distance from it to the water way; it is near the coast of which district and village; search, plug markers, draw maps to submit to the King’. ¹² Obviously, the Nguyen Dynasty particularly focused on the need for a thorough understanding of the sea areas.

The early kings of the Nguyen Dynasty were interested in maritime controls and patrols, through which soldiers could practice boat-handling skills and gain familiarity with the waters, thus being ready to respond when the pirates attacked. This was also a way to strengthen their reputation, and thus act as a deterrent.

Marine patrol activities were closely specified by the Nguyen Dynasty. There were regulations on sea patrol, which stated that, ‘every summer, upon the transport period … the boats with soldiers are dispatched every year, starting in March, ending in July. This is recorded.’ ¹³ There were regulations on the rotation of people and boats, to patrol every three months, as ‘soldiers sent for long days must be tired, now the guards in the locations must be changed every three months to make sure that every soldier has time to rest.’ ¹⁴ Although closely specified, the regulations were not inflexible; the Nguyen Dynasty gave appropriate directions for the patrols, depending on the specific situation, thus achieving the highest possible efficiency. In the 1838 edition, Minh Menh commanded that:

In the past, I have told that every year the military boats go out for patrolling in February. It is January now; the road is convenient; that is the time for the boats to leave, the time to patrol the sea area. ¹⁵

In addition, the king emphasised, ‘Particularly, the sea areas with many pirates, regardless of the season, officials of these areas are responsible for patrolling…’ ¹⁶ Patrols were held daily, except when stormy conditions prevented it. According to Minh Menh, ‘in the months of spring to autumn, when the public and merchant boats travel, in those months there must be additional daily patrols from the local marine posts. ¹⁷

To cope with the pirates, the patrolling ships had to be armed with cannons, rifles, firecrackers, and magnifying glasses. The decree of King Minh Menh in 1835 said:

‘Boats of enemies are very agile, when fighting with them, if it is a long distance, we must use the cannons to aim at the paddles, the rudders of the enemy boats to shoot, if it is near, use the hooks to cut the ropes in steering levers, make their boats fall down so that we can catch them… Therefore, the coastal areas in inside and outside areas, if there are soldiers that patrol the sea to fight the enemy, you have to do that.’ ¹⁸

In addition, food was carefully prepared for long days at sea. The soldiers were given an advance of food, along these lines: ‘The capital officials are entitled to receive food of 3–4 months; provincial officials are entitled to food of 1–2 months, based on actual situation.’ ¹⁹

Building the boats to suit the patrols against pirates was also of special interest. In May 1838, King Minh Menh commanded the boat building:

‘…the boats sent by the government, as boats covered with copper with many wires, the enemy will be afraid and escape, the boats with the words Binh, Dinh are too large and cannot go quickly to catch them, O boats, Le boats are too small and cannot stand sea waves and winds, not convenient to expel the enemy, sea enemy is not defeated because of that reason… approve the Ministry in-charge to discuss, build boats to patrol, the boats are not too big, not too small like O boats, Le boats, the boats must be moderate, light and fast, convenient, then submit the model to me, wait for decree to start building… approve the idea of the Ministry in-charge in the capital, make the boats covered with copper to patrol. The coastal provinces make the boats, two boats for each province, maybe three or four boats for large provinces, called cruisers.’ ²⁰

Although the programme for combatting piracy was clear and suitable boats were made available, provincial officials did not have sufficient knowledge of how to prepare the boats, soldiers, or weapons. Accordingly, the patrols often failed, and the officials were blamed. Moreover, cowardice among the naval units was a persistent problem. For this the Nguyen Dynasty punished them according to the law, with no relief. ²¹

The Nguyen Dynasty knew how to mobilise people into anti-pirate activity. Although patrolling the sea was generally assigned to the regular military, the coastal areas were also given authority to act against the pirates. The state equipped the people in these areas with telescopes, ²² provided them with weapons, and supported boat repairs. It was ordered that:

Patrolling is carried out regularly and continuously on the sea, regardless of the court boats or the local boats, the civilians who are healthy, courageous, good at shooting can be added to the patrolling teams. ²³

In September 1832, King Minh Menh ordered the coastal villages to be ready with boats and weapons, because if the enemy ships came near the shore, they must join forces to fight and arrest them. ²⁴ In 1834, he continued to ask

the Governors, Province Chiefs, Provincial Treasurers, and Provincial Judges in the coastal areas, to consider the islands in the territorial waters with the population, commanded the people in the provinces to quickly bring existing fishing boats to repair to be quick; two or three boats for places with dense population. Each boat can transport about 20 people. The state paid for repair costs. Materials such as long spears, rifles, bullets were delivered to the people to use for patrols. ²⁵

The Nguyen Dynasty promulgated the reward and punishment rules for sea patrol and catching the pirate boats, as follows:

If the boats that patrol the territorial waters of sea post with the negligence, immediately report to the provinces to seriously punish. The patrol boats of the capital consist of two groups of the South and the North. Each group sent four to five boats divided into two trips, each trip is from three, five days apart, the first one went to the middle of the territorial waters, then the second one departed from the territorial waters, the second one went to the middle of the territorial waters, the first one departed from the end of the territorial waters. Passing through a province without seeing the patrol boats of the province, immediately report to the province for punitive action … If a boat arrests the big enemy ships, it will be rewarded 1,000 coins. If the arrested ship is small, then it will be rewarded 500 coins showing encouragement. If the patrol boats annoy merchant ships full of goods to trade, it is a serious crime and subject to severe punishment. ²⁶ Especially, if the enemy continues to harass the sea, sneakily fighting and robbing, this is very serious offence and subject to severe punishment. ²⁷

Thus, the Nguyen Dynasty attempted to elaborate and detail the necessary preparations to confront the pirates. These actions showed the sense of initiative and responsibility of the Nguyen Dynasty to ensure marine security and the safety of traders and ships.

Anti-piracy activities in the South China Sea of the Nguyen Dynasty in the first half of the nineteenth century

Based on the records left by the National Historian’s Office of the Nguyen Dynasty, the authors have recorded the times that pirates appeared in the South China Sea and how the Nguyen Dynasty countered them (Table 1).

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Table 1.

Anti-piracy activities in the South China Sea of the Nguyen Dynasty in the first half of the nineteenth century.

No.	Year	Content
1	1802	Captured Tay Son sea invaders, once medalled by the Qing people, with Te Ngoi invaders (Chinese invaders), Mac Quang Phu, Luong Van Canh, and Phan Van Tai used boats to cross the sea to Humen town, Guangdong province. The Qing King hated the Tay Son invaders, who recruited Mac Quang Phu looting outside the border and had long hindered the sea way. The King was very pleased to hear this reported. 28
2	6/1802	The Nguyen Dynasty’s Marine Corps entered the Hoi Thong estuary (Nghe An province), attacking the enemy commander, Nguyen Van Thuan, capturing boats, guns, weapons, and plenty of food. 29
3	7/1802	In July of this year, the enemy attacked from the sea in Van Ninh (Quang Ninh district, Quang Binh province). Previously, Te Ngoi invaders (Chinese invaders) led by Truong Ai Loc, the self-proclaimed commander, gathered the gangs offshore, and looted merchant boats. After the defeat at the mouth of Nhat Le beach, they sneaked out into the sea of Van Ninh to plunder. The king sent the Marine Corps to the Van Don seaport, encountered 15 enemy ships, attacked, slashed the enemy general Trinh That and many gangs, and arrested 11 people of Truong Ai Loc. The surviors then ran away. King Gia Long asked the people to take the arrested enemy to Qinzhou (China) for the Qing. 30
4	9/1803	The Nguyen Dynasty sent soldiers and defeated more than one hundred boats of Te Ngoi sea invaders (Chinese invaders) looting in Kinh Mon (Hai Duong province). 31
5	3/1804	The Northern navy defeated Te Ngoi sea invaders (Chinese invaders) in the waters of the Yen Quang district, captured 13 enemy soldiers, boats, and weapons, and handed them over. 32
6	12/1804	Te Ngoi sea invaders (Chinese invaders) gathered over 60 boats and harassed Van Ninh in Yen Quang. Official Le Van Vinh took the army to defeat them. Town chief Phan Phuong Khach, deputy chief Phan Dinh Trung, and district chief Vi Quang Vy attacked; the enemy had to run away. The event was reported. Phan Phuong Khach was promoted as counsellor to oversee affairs of the town, Phan Dinh Trung was promoted as defence officer in charge of affairs of the deputy chief, and Vi Quang Vy as defence officer. They were rewarded 500 coins, with a reward for all soldiers of 1,000 coins. 33
7	6/1805	Marine invaders from Java, Indonesia plundered via the sea, hurting the people of Kunlun. Officials asked to repair and weaponise public and private boats to prevent future attacks. The King approved. 34
8	8/1805	Te Ngoi sea invaders (Chinese invaders) gathered more than 50 boats, sneakily operating outside the waterfronts of Lieu, Lach, and Bien Son (Tinh Gia town, Thanh Hoa province). The leader sent troops to arrest them. Town officials patrolled the sea with strict precautions. 35
9	12/1805	Pirates were off the coast of Nghe An. Guards fought with and defeated 18 people. Town officials reported the incident, and the king awarded 200 coins to people who caught the pirates. 36
10	2/1806	Te Ngoi sea invaders (Chinese invaders) gathered 30 boats to go to Hoa Phong, where they burnt and robbed Phuong Hoang (Khanh Hoa province). The Chief sent the Deputy Chief Truong Tan Buu with the corps to expel these invaders. 37
11	4/1806	Te Ngoi sea invader (Chinese invader) Lam Tong Huynh sent people to the court of Hue to ask permission to call for the gangs to surrender. King said that: ‘[T]he enemy has surrendered, the court is generous, but the method of treatment is in the heart of faith. This can be said that they have changed their minds to the right ways, get rid of evils to do good things, they should hand out the boats and the weapons. And the assets in the boats are delivered; we granted them food, choose the land for them to stay so that it can try to lure their gangs, if they do not want to, let them go for free.’ 38
12	3/1807	The marine invaders of Men province (now known as the Fujian province of China) were Thai Khien and Chu Phan, who were chased by the Qing army and fled to the sea. Governor Luong Quang sent a letter to The Nguyen dynasty saying that the enemy boats were blue with red masts, and if they came to the coast, then to attack and arrest them. The officials reported the event. The king commanded the coastal provinces from Quang Duc back to the north, sending the boats to patrol. 39
13	3/1808	More than 80 enemy boats chased by the Qing fled to Yen Quang (the Quang Ninh province). The Nguyen Dynasty brought the soldiers on boats to attack. The result: the enemy was defeated, beheading more than ten invaders and capturing 60 people. 40
14	5/1808	Bandits appeared in Tien Hung, Son Nam Ha (Nam Dinh Province) and sneaked into the estuary of Tra Ly to loot. The Nguyen Ba Hue’s army attacked, arrested the enemy general Ninh and more than forty gangs. 41
15	5/1808	Te Ngoi pirates came to Hoang Chau and An Phong hamlets (the Nghiem Phong district) in Yen Quang (the Quang Ninh province). Officials sent soldiers to fight, hit some heads of the enemy, arrested more than 10 people, and the enemy was defeated. The ships of soldiers were ordered to reconsider, arrest pirates, and many of them surrendered. The Nguyen king exonerated them. 42
	6/1818	Java sea invaders gathered to loot, making the Phu Quoc people in Ha Tien panic. The Nguyen Dynasty sent officers from the Gia Dinh province to arrest the looters. 43
	6/1822	In Ha Tien Sea, there were usually Javanese sea invaders (Indonesian invaders) plundering. The king sent Captain Ngo Van Duc and Nguyen Van Suong with soldiers to patrol and combat invaders. Ngo Van Duc was sick, so Nguyen Van Suong went, fought with the enemy, beheaded three pirates, and took a boat. The fisherman Dang Van Tu also brought fishing boats to support the effort, beheaded four pirates, and captured five. The enemy troops rushed to the shores of Chan Lap, where they were arrested by the people. The Gia Dinh officials reported to the King, asking for a special reward and punishment to show admonition. 44
	7/1823	In Thanh Hoa province, there were sea robbers in Cu Nham (the Quang Xuong district), killing the people, burning more than 300 houses, robbing all assets, and leaving. The incident was reported to the king. The king was very compassionate, granting two coins and one rice bucket to each family, three coins for the dead, and two coins for the injured. The king sent the soldiers to arrest the robbers. 45
	7/1823	Javanese sea invaders (Indonesian invaders) robbed Lai Du Islands (Hon Ri) in Ha Tien province. Two teams, Binh Hai and Thanh Chau, fought, caught alive, and beheaded some invaders. The escapees ran to the east. The king was informed and send a reward of 100 coins. 46
	9/1826	In Thanh Hoa province, sea invaders attacked merchant ships at the Y Bich seaport. Boat owner Nguyen Ba urged the sailors to fight with the enemy, many of whom jumped into the sea and died. They caught two boats with weapons; the guns were handed over in the town. King Minh Menh was informed; the king rewarded 100 coins to the officers. 47
	12/1826	There were more than 100 enemy boats in Truc Cat commune in Do Son (Thanh Hoa province). Bac Thanh, as ordered by the king, sent troops to combat them. 48
	2/1827	In Hai Duong Province, there were more than 20 enemy boats in Gia Vien Commune. An Duong District leader Nguyen Quang Muu brought villagers and people to strike; they robbed a boat and beheaded four enemies. The invaders drowned in the river and survivors ran to the east. The king knew the news and rewarded Nguyen Quang Muu with 150 coins. 49
	3/1827	The sea invaders in Quang Yen (the Quang Ninh province) Ba Cong Dung gathered more than 50 boats and robbed Tien Yen. Nguyen Dang Khanh and Le Dao Quang took boats to arrest them. The official Ngo Duc Chinh, in his home visit leave, also took people to support. Le Dao Quang and Ngo Duc Chinh were the strikers, Nguyen Dang Khanh was the supporter; they defeated the enemy, beheaded Ba Cong Dung and 14 gangs, captured 16 people, and took a lot of boats and weapons.Bac Thanh reported the matter to the king. The king praised and rewarded all the officials, soldiers, and people with merit in combating the sea invaders. 50
	5/1827	In Thua Thien Hue, there was a boat of Qing (China) to rob the merchant boats and the officials reported the event. Emperor Minh Menh sent the deputy lieutenant Doan Duong to take a boat to pursue. 51
	4/1830	In Quang Binh and Thanh Hoa, Nghe An, there were Qing aggressors (China) hijacking merchant ships. The officials reported the incident; King Minh Menh sent the military to search. For more than a month, no one was arrested, and the King ordered withdrawal. The officials and the martial arts officials of the capital and district were subject to imposture. 52
	6/1830	Javanese sea invaders (Indonesian invaders) were outside the Phu My estuary of the Binh Thuan province. The officials reported the incident; King Minh Menh convicted those who were responsible for not completing their tasks, dispatching boats and urging the towns to arrest the enemy. Team leaders of Phu Quoc Phu Cuong Nguyen Van Liet and the deputy leader Nguyen Van Nghi fought with the enemy on Long Canh Island, cut some heads off, caught more than 10 invaders, and took guns and weapons. 53
	8/1830	Javanese sea invaders (Indonesian invaders) robbed Hon Rai island in Ha Tien province, taking their gangs to the shore to set up guns. The soldiers patrolled and met the enemy, the two sides fought, the court troop was smaller and unable to fight the enemy, the court withdrew troops immediately. Minh Menh demoted those who were responsible for losing to the sea invaders.Meanwhile, the Gia Dinh province reported on the capture of Javaese sea invaders. 54
	January/1831	In the seafront in Nghe An, sea invaders were going into and out of the sea, and the officials sent boats to arrest them. Reporting to King Minh Menh, he ordered the coastal areas from Thanh Hoa town back to the north to set up base on the territory to patrol and arrest the invaders. 55
	4/1832	Quang Yen marine invaders were going into and out of the Van Don Sea (the Quang Ninh province). The patrol boat met and fought with the enemy, killed more than 20 people, many left the boat to run, repair the boats and rafts trying to make atonement.The king knew and said that: ‘Pham Dinh Thinh gangs formerly hunted the enemy boats, issued decree to praise and rewarded to continue to win, I give further rewards, bonuses, I do not expect that they were arrogant and failed to finish their tasks, which should be considered a serious crime, but Thinh asked to take his money to repair the boat to fight the enemy, tried hard to serve the court, although he lose, he was also enthusiastic, this is also meritorious. This is ‘When one door shuts, another opens’. So, Pham Dinh Thinh is only fined 80 rods, he must try to atone…Among the people killed in the battle, there was Pham Dinh Nghia, very pitiful, the reward for his death is 10 taels of silver, others are given money of different levels’. 56
	5/1832	The Nguyen Dynasty sent Le Dao Quang, the Quang Yen chief, to bring boats to patrol the sea and arrest invaders. 57
	9/1832	Nguyen Bao, a bandit hiding in Quang Yen (the Quang Ninh province), gathered over 10 boats of the Qing (Chinese) barbarians, fighting with the army of the Nguyen Dynasty in the Do Son seaport, Hai Duong province. Outcome: the Nguyen army was killed, and many were wounded. The enemy set fire to the houses of the people, stole all guns in the station, and moved away. 58
	9 /1832	The patrol boat in Van Ninh met the enemy and fought. Result: captured four ships and weapons of invaders. There were five more boats aimed in the Qing direction, looking to escape. 59
	9 /1832	In Gia Dinh, there were Javanese sea invaders (Indonesian invaders) robbing and arresting people. Commander Le Van Nghia himself brought the boats in pursuit; the enemy immediately moved to Con Lon Island, robbed the merchant ships, got onshore, burned the houses, and robbed assets. At the same time, the king commanded the villages on the coast to be ready to fight, so if the enemy boats were near the shore, they could work together to combat the enemy. The result: some of the enemy were beheaded, and the boats and weapons were captured. The king promoted and rewarded silver to the victors. 60
	10/1832	Quang Yen chief Le Dao Quang brought troops to Tay Trang Mountain, confronted the sea enemy, and fought them. Outcome: the enemy ran away, leaving six boats, drums, swords, and spears. Le Dao Quang was stationed for a few days, during which more than 10 boats came from the Qing reefs; Le Dao Quang then hurried troops to fight, but the enemy pulled the sails and was not caught. 61
	12/1832	At the Do Son seaport of Hai Duong province, enemy ships were going straight east. General Governor Nguyen Cong Tru chose 10 fishing boats for the troops to carry weapons, posing as merchant ships, moving to the sea and fighting with the enemy. 62
	6/1833	The Governor of An Giang, Ha Tien Le Dai Cuong, heard that Phien An had a military coup against two provinces, Vinh Long and Dinh Tuong. Le Dai Cuong then inquired and discovered that the enemy general Le Van Khoi gathered the gangs, occupying the province; he informed the General Governor of Long An-Dinh Tuong and informed Khanh Hoa, Binh Thuan, Ha Tien, and the surrounding areas. Each province must protect the important waterways. 63
	7/1833	A sea enemy occupied Phuc An. General Phan Van Thuy, Counsellor Truong Minh Giang divided troops to protect vital roads. The enemy was divided into three lines; the home troops and the enemy fought very badly, and the enemy was injured. Many of them died, then they ran to the forest to escape. The officials captured and killed more than 20 invaders and gained a lot of guns and weapons. 64
	8/1833	Javanese sea invaders (Indonesian invaders) from the Khanh Hoa water territory discovered a loophole and came ashore to rob and loot. The leader of Khanh Hoa province sent Captain Nguyen Van Da to gather the troops, engage in combat, and kill two invaders. The enemy ran to the east. The officials took four boats and recovered more than 60 Kinh people, who were arrested. Emperor Minh Menh rewarded 300 coins. 65
	9/1834	Javanese sea invaders (Indonesian invaders) emerged along the coast of Hon Rong Island in the Ha Tien province. Nguyen Van Hieu, the commander of Ha Phu, sent soldiers to patrol and fight with the enemy, but they lost, left their boats, and ran. Chief Tran Chan immediately dispatched the boats to strike and reported to the King. The King sentenced Nguyen Van Hieu and dismissed him as a soldier, to try to redeem himself. 66
	1/1835	In Quang Ngai, covert enemy boats were operating in Thai Can. This was reported to the king. The captain was demoted. The king ordered the provincial governor to send troops to pursue, asking coastal areas to join forces to fight the enemy. 67
	3/1835	Sea pirates in Quang Ngai surreptitiously emerged in the waters of Sa Ky and Dai Co Luy, hijacked merchant ships, then withdrew. The detachment of Deputy Commander Tran Huu Di chased and could not catch them. Upon being reported, King Minh Menh dismissed Tran Huu Di and issued a decree to Do Khac Thu in Quang Nam province, to separate soldiers into three boats to catch the enemy.Later, Nguyen Van Chat, the official of Quang Nam province, met enemy ships, fought with the enemy, and the enemy ran to the east. Nguyen Van Chat was demoted.After that, the enemy took over the pirate ships in the waters of Kim Bong in Binh Dinh province. Nguyen Van Thuan was demoted; the official Nguyen Van Ton, sent by the province, was severely rebuked. 68
	4/1835	In the sea of Thuan An, off the coast, there were three enemy covert boats, hijacking merchant ships. Tran Cong Dao, the head of the Binh Dinh navy, escorted the public assets, met the enemy, then chased them and fired cannons. The enemy immediately ran to the east. King Minh Menh heard the news, praised and promoted Tran Cong Dao to team leader, the rank-5 mandarins, and rewarded him with a thick coat. The king also rewarded the soldiers with 100 coins. 69
	10/1835	Javanese sea invaders (Indonesian invaders) surreptitiously appeared in Tam Giang, Thua Thien Hue province, stole two guns, and then left. The provincial officials Doan Khiem Quang, Ho Cong Huy, and Hoang Van Ly were all demoted a rank. 70
	2/1836	In Quang Nam, two enemy ships were stealing merchandise from merchant ships in the territory of Dai Ap and Tieu Ap. The province sent troops to pursue the enemy. King Minh Menh sent his people to take the boats to Thuan An, dividing the patrol between the coastal waters of Quang Nam and Quang Ngai. 71
	3/1836	The Deputy Commander of the cruiser sent by Capital Nguyen Van Khach to Sa Ky, Quang Ngai, was docked for several days. Qing invaders robbed the merchant boats on the sea and then left. The King demoted Nguyen Van Khach two ranks. 72
	6/1836	Binh Dinh’s navy ships patrolled the sea and met Qing aggressors in Phan Thiet waters; Official Do Viet Suu shot and killed one invader, but Do Viet Suu was killed. King Minh Menh heard the news, sent people to pursue the enemy, and granted Do Viet Suu the death gratuity. 73
	12/1836	In Binh Dinh, there were three Chinese enemy ships operating in Kim Bong waters; provincial officials sent military boats to fight. Upon receiving the report, King Minh Menh sent 150 men to coordinate to arrest the enemy. 74
	1/1837	Officials of the Quang Ngai province patrolled the sea, encountering three enemy ships in the waters of Xa Hoang and fighting with them. The enemy was strong; the enemy arrested captain Tran Van Thuc and his soldiers jumped into the water. The boats of local people saved them from drowning; the enemy took the boats and moved away. Minh Menh ordered to behead Tran Van Thuc and hang his head to deter people. The soldiers were subjected to 100 lashes and wore heavy shackles for a month. Other officers were detained or demoted. The next day, the fighting boat came to Ly Son Island (the Quang Ngai province). Captain Nguyen Van Dien brought fishermen to fight against the enemy. However, the enemy took advantage of the wind and defeated the boat of Nguyen Van Dien; Nguyen Van Dien was drowned and died at sea.The King requested the Quang Ngai provincial government send troops in defence, informing the residents to practice, so that if an enemy boat went ashore for looting, they could support the military troops and fight the enemy. 75
	3/1837	At Bach Cau, Thanh Hoa Province, there were some covert sea invaders. The king sent more troops to detain them. 76
	3/1837	In Don Tien, Binh Thuan Province, there were marine invaders who boarded merchant ships and robbed goods. Tran Quang Nghia led the troops and people to pursue them and the enemy ran away. 77
	4/1837	In Hai Van, Thua Thien, a covert enemy boat was operating. The station custodian Le Trong Chinh led the military force in pursuit; the enemy abandoned the merchant ships, running to the east. The King heard the news and rewarded Le Trong Chinh and his soldiers.The enemy came to the sea in Binh Dinh, Phu Yen to steal merchant ships and then moved away. The army chased the enemy. 78
	5/1837	At the waterfronts of Cau Mong, Da Nung (Phu Yen province), pirate boats were robbing merchant boats and then escaping. The provincial authorities and officers were arrested, and the sea custodians were dismissed. The leader Ton That Luong himself asked to bring military boats to masquerade as merchant boats to arrest the enemy. Because the pirates were quiet, Ton That Luong brought his troops back. 79
	6/1837	Three boats of Do Ba pirates (Javanese – Indonesian pirates) surreptitiously operated on Hon Rai – Ha Tien. The arresting officer Nguyen Van Do and Nguyen Toan brought the troops, and arrested the leaders of the enemy, Bang Ly Ma O Ton, Bang Ly Ma Co Ly, and 43 gangs, cutting off 12 heads, while others jumped into the sea and died. The king complimented the excellent combat and promoted the leaders of the group to a higher level. He rewarded money, clothes, and fabrics for other merits. The captured invaders were all killed and their heads were hung on the coastal island. Within the enemy were three children, whose five right hand fingers were cut; they were then given to the merchant ships to take them to trading locations and released with long-lasting fear. 80
	7/1837	In Phu Yen sea, Qing pirates sneakily harassed merchant ships. Phu Yen province brought troops to patrol. 81
	2/1838	In Quang Nam province, there were covert pirates robbing merchant boats in the Tra Son sea area. The merchant boats docked at the beach of Thuan An.The king heard the news and sent his people to the sea. The sailors were sent to the sea to pursue the enemy. 82
	3/1838	The invading boats of the Qing dynasty snuck out of the Phan Ly seaport, Binh Thuan province; the guards of the Nguyen Dynasty did not know, so the enemy successfully harassed them. The leaders of the guards, Nguyen Van Thanh and Dinh Van Lan, were demoted two ranks.
		The patrolling boat of Captain Nguyen Van Diem encountered enemy troops outside the sea of De Di, Binh Dinh province, fought with them, saved merchant ships, and were rewarded by the king. The king continued to send troops to take the boats from Thua Thien Hue to the north to Quang Yen to catch the enemy. 83
	3/1838	An invading boat of the Qing appeared in the sea of Hai Van (Da Nang), stole the cargo of boats at Thanh Khe wharf, and then left. 84
	4/1838	In Hoa Phong beach, Quang Yen (the Quang Ninh province), there were dozens of Chinese pirates hijacking merchant ships. The king sent his people to take the troops to the sea to patrol and arrest the enemy. 85
	4/1838	In Khanh Hoa Sea, a large boat of Chinese invaders encountered the patrolling boat of Le Van Te, sent by the court. The invaders escaped. The king demoted a series of officials who did not fulfill their missions. 86
	5/1838	In the Ne Du, Y Bich seaport in the Thanh Hoa province, Chinese invaders robbed merchant ships, and boat owners had to dock in the Lieu and Lac waterfronts, Nam Dinh province. The King received a report, and the Coast Guard in Thanh Hoa Nguyen Luong Nhan, custodians who looked after the waterfronts of Y-Lich, Lieu, and Lac, all were demoted two ranks. 87
	6/1838	In Lan Da, Ha Tien province, the Do Ba sea enemy (Javanese – Indonesian pirates) robbed and kidnapped people; the authorities arrested the enemy, as commander Nguyen Van Do brought his army to pursue, cut off eight of the enemy’s heads, and took boats, guns, and weapons. The king praised and promoted Do Ba one rank, granted money and cotton coats, and the team members were all rewarded. The arrested invader was immediately ordered to be executed by the king. 88
	6/1838	North Vietnamese boats passed along the Nhuong coast in Ha Tinh province and were robbed by pirates. 89
	7/1838	The Governor of Hai Duong Nguyen Cong Tru brought the troops to the Quang Yen Sea to catch the enemy. 90
	9/1838	The Governor of Hai Duong Nguyen Cong Tru brought boats to Chang Son (now in the Thach That district, Ha Tay province) to attack the enemy, cutting off the head of an enemy. The rest got out of the boats and ran on shore, so officials chased them, arrested and killed most of them, and took the boats and weapons. 91
	11/1838	The patrolling boat of the Governor of Hai Duong Nguyen Cong Tru in Chan Chau Sea (commune name) – Huong Phong met Chinese pirates invading in 60 boats. The two sides fought. The Nguyen Dynasty gained three small boats and weapons. Due to a strong east wind, the enemy could gather and separate, and the Vietnamese troops encountered many difficulties. 92
	3/1839	The patrolling boat of the Governor of Hai Duong Nguyen Cong Tru in the Van Don Sea, carrying local officers, discovered Chinese robbers (16 robbers were captured alive, 50 were killed) and boats with weapons. 93
	3/1839	In the sea area of the Dai Ap – Quang Nam province, there were covert sea pirates; the custodian and the combatant dispatched were removed. The king sent people to continue hunting the invaders. 94
	3/1839	At Dai Chiem estuary (Quang Nam province), invaders robbed public boats. Team leader Nguyen Van Tri chased them, stabbed four invaders, and saved two merchant ships. 95
	4/1838	In the waters of Nhat Le – Quang Binh province and the waterfronts of Ha Tinh province, pirates repeatedly appeared. The custodian and the combatant sent by the province fought, the enemy ran, the troops did not have any loss of life and wealth. The king heard, praised, and informed the provinces if they saw enemy ships, they must try to chase and kill them, and not let them escape. 96
	5/1838	In Binh Dinh, Chinese pirates operating around Thi Nai beach stole the traders’ goods and left. Upon the report to the king, Captain Phan Van Hua and provincial governor Ton That Luong were demoted. 97
	6/1839	The boat named Hai Van, sent by the Nguyen Dynasty, passed through the waterfront of Ha Tinh going from Nam Dinh back to the capital and met enemy boats. The escort Dang Van Trang panicked, unable to keep up, and hid behind the helm. 98
		The army boat of Marshal Tran Huu Thang, Counsellor Nguyen Cong Tru proceeded to Ha Tinh waters, encountered rain and winds that broke the sail ropes, docked in Luat waterfront, and was presented to the King, albeit late. The king forgave them and said that the sea enemy must have been hiding away, then called them back. Officials who patrol the coast were sent by the court and troops of provinces from Binh Thuan to the North, and were also dismissed. 99
	10/1840	180 sailors from Thanh Hai to Tran Son Tay (the so-called Tran Tay) (in the North West of Hanoi today) fought with the enemy, drifting by the wind; there was no news for long time. In November, the king announced a failed battle, and granted double survivorship to the victims’ families, making an altar for sacrifice. 100
	5/1841	Two provinces, Thanh Hoa and Nghe An, were reminded to send troops to capture the enemy. The Qing invaders often obstructed the sea. Meeting the enemy in the sea, Le Dinh Hoan, in charge of the boat, did not know it was an enemy boat. The enemy approached, jumped into the officers’ boat, stole all guns, ammunition, and other public items. Hoan went with the empty boat back to Bien station (Thanh Hoa province). The governor, Ton That Lang, thought that he sent the wrong people, asking for forgiveness. The king immediately sent decrees to Thanh Hoa and Nghe An to send soldiers to capture the enemy. Dispatching two custodians in the capital to two ships, Binh Hai and Tinh Hai, to immediately catch the enemy, for a long time, no invader was arrested. Thus, they returned. The king also killed Le Dinh Hoan to deter everyone. 101
	12/1841	In Thanh Hoa province pirates were robbing the boats at Han waterfront. The officer keeping the station urged the soldiers to fight, catching people and boats of the enemy. Provincial officers sent soldiers to the sea to patrol, where they encountered the bandits and killed most. The remaining bandits ran away. King Thieu Tri rewarded the soldiers who captured the enemy. 102
	1/1842	Several dozen Siamese sailing boats came to Phu Quoc (Kien Giang provice) and burned houses. Officer Phan Van Giang, with fewer troops, was unable to defeat the enemy, and ran away. The king immediately removed his post and sent him to the fronts. Then the King sent the Governor of Dinh Tuong – Bien Hoa Le Van Duc sent troops with the copper coated boats Thanh Loan and Tuong Hac (boats in the capital arrived in Gia Dinh) with six Hai Van ships travelling to Phu Quoc Island. Storms arose, and a boat was robbed by the Siamese pirates. 103
	6/1842	Hai Duong navy guard Le Cong Bao took a Hai Van boat to transport goods from the capital in Nam Dinh province to the Luot waterfront, in the Ha Tinh province. He met two enemy ships. During the ensuing fight, Le Cong Bao and Nguyen Thiem Tho were killed and the soldiers in the boat were injured and died. The boats were also taken away by the enemy. King Thieu Tri demoted and penalised the patrollers, and continued to send the boats to the sea to arrest the enemy. The king also handed over the directive from Thanh Hoa to the North to block the enemy boats and calm the sea. 104
	8/1842	Nam Dinh and Quang Yen were affected by sea invasion, and many boats were damaged. Officers were helpless before the invasion from the sea. King Thieu Tri sent troops from the capital to the South and from the capital to the North to hunt the enemy and calm the sea. If this was done with neglect, officers would be severely punished. The King also asked Guangdong (China) to keep the sea free from harassing invaders. 105
	9/1842	In the sea of Thanh Hoa province, Qing invaders were looting the merchant and the public boats from Ha Tinh to the north. Marine soldiers could not arrest them. The storm surged, and suddenly there were three enemy boats on the coast of Ngoc Son (Tinh Gia district, Thanh Hoa province). The custodian of Tinh Gia district cooperated with the officials of Bien Son, Bang, and Han districts to assault the enemy. The result was that more than 100 militants were wounded; weapons and guns were confiscated. The king rewarded and continued to direct the provinces from Ha Tinh northward to Nam Dinh to capture Chinese invaders. Soon, Quang Yen rounded up and burned two enemy ships. Many of the enemy died; weapons and guns were confiscated. The king praised and rewarded the people with merit. Criminals were arrested and sentenced to trial in Thanh Hoa province. The king did not kill many; he only ordered to kill the culprits Mac Mau Son, To Lao Tu, and Phan Tien Long, along with 12 gangs, cutting bellies of To Lao Tu and Phan Tien Long and taking their liver as a sacrifice to Captain Le Cong Bao of Hai Duong (In June of that year, Le Cong Bao took public ships carrying items, came to Ha Tinh and transported them to Ha Tinh, where he was killed by the enemy. To Lao Tu and Phan Tien Long cut Le Cong Bao’s belly, took bubbles, baked them, and served them with wine). The other pirates were discharged to the beach and beheaded. The 82-member group was demoted in rank and dispatched to Ai Lao (the Quang Tri Province), Quy Hop (the Ha Tinh Province), Tuong Duong, Quy Chau, Tran Ninh (the Nghe An province), the Thuy Vi district (the Hung Hoa province), and the De Dinh district (the Tuyen Quang province). The leader of the invaders, Kim Nhi Ky, and eight gangs many times harassed ships in China, then were sent alive to the capital and waited to be assigned to the Qing (China). 106
	4/1843	There were more than 20 boats of the Qing dynasty (China) docking in Dai Chiem Island in the Quang Nam province. Le Van Huu, the deputy commander-in-chief of the outlying sea, encountered enemy ships. He found a strong enemy, and, as his troops were smaller, he was unable to defeat the enemy, so he withdrew. Deputy commander Nguyen Nghia heard the message and immediately brought the army out to block the enemy, then attacked. The king sent more officers and soldiers to join forces to fight the pirates. The result: they won the battle. The king rewarded the people with merit. 107
	4/1843	Death gratuity was given to the boats last year when they went to sea and had an accident, where they encountered 27 boats from the Chinese barbarians, who intercepted and killed them. More than 300 people drowned; only 51 were taken by the enemy, and they robbed the boats and went to the east. The Nguyen court at first did not know this, until after the enemy drifted in the sea of Qinzhou (China), was surrounded by the Qing troops, and the Qing captured the victims of Vietnam and returned to them to the Quang Yen province (Vietnam). 108
	1/1844	In Y Bich waterfront (Thanh Hoa province), there were enemy boats robbing the merchant ships. Thanh Hoa province reported this to the court; two provinces, Quang Nam and Quang Ngai, also reported to the Nguyen court about this marine invasion. The king dispatched the officers and seven boats to Thua Thien Hue to the south, to Binh Thuan, and back to the North to Quang Yen, patrolling coastal areas and sending troops to patrol and fight against sea invaders. 109
	4/1844	Qing invaders fled to the Sea of Quang Yen province. The district chief of Van Ninh, Nguyen Dang Tiep, brought troops to attack, captured three invaders, and killed two invaders. Upon receiving the report, King Thieu Tri rewarded Nguyen Dang Tiep and the people with merit, and the captured pirates were assigned to Qinzhou (China) for judgement. 110
	5/1846	Qing (Chinese) invaders, led by Quach Huu Buc, hid in the waters of Quang Yen. Upon being reported, the provincial officers sent people to the sea to arrest Huu Bac and the five invaders; the others committed suicide. The King rewarded the people with merit. The Qing prisoners were arrested and handed over to Qinzhou (China) for judgement. 111
	2/1847	Five boats were sent to the South by the court (Kim Ung, Phan Bang, Linh Phuong, Tho Mac, Van Bang); they did not go to the sea, but docked in the Tra Son area (Da Nang), met Western invaders, and the boat sails and boat lanyards were stolen. 112
	2/1847	In the Quang Yen province, there were marine invaders robbing shrimp fishermen. The chief, Lu Cap Hi, and the local people rounded up five Qing invaders and collected their boats and weapons. King Thieu Tri heard this and rewarded Cap Hi and his people; the captured gangs were assigned to Qinzhou. 113
	4/ 1847	In the Binh Thuan and Khanh Hoa provinces, there were Qing (Chinese) sea invaders robbing the merchant ships. King Thieu Tri sent his followers to go to the sea; boats sent by the court and by the provinces must combat and kill pirates. If there was no merit, they would be severely punished. 114
	7/1847	Quang Yen province’s commander Tran Bao Thu came to the sea to patrol. He met two boats of Qing (China), beheaded three sea invaders, and captured the boats and weapons. Upon being reported, the king rewarded the officers with merit. Shortly thereafter, three small Qing boats chased by the Qinzhou army boats hid in Van Ninh (the Khanh Hoa province). The local people beheaded three invaders and caught one invader alive. King Thieu Tri rewarded the villagers with 30 coins and sent the arrested one to Qinzhou (China) for judgement. 115
	5/1848	The enemy boats in the Chinese sea harassed Qinzhou. The Qinzhou district chief sent messages to the district chief of Van Ninh (Khanh Hoa province) to hire several boats and soldiers, to station them in places along the border to prevent pirates. Quang Yen provincial officials reported to the court, and the Nguyen Dynasty was prepared so that the waterway was carefully guarded against the sea enemy. 116
	9/1849	More than 70 boats of Chinese sea invaders moved to the Hai Duong province, harassing and looting. The soldiers here fought and killed, then took advantage of the night to sneak into the river of the Quang Yen, aiming to disturb Quang Yen. The chief Nguyen Khoa Duc urged his troops to destroy the enemy, catching them alive, and taking boats, guns, and weapons. The King rewarded Nguyen Khoa Duc and the people with merit. The arrested criminals and their possessions were assigned to Qinzhou of Qing. 117
	2/1851	The sea invaders robbed Co Luy station (in Quang Ngai province), where there was a powerless patrol with a negligent deputy commander, Tran Quang Cuong, and a negligent deputy captain, Nguyen Huong. The king demoted these people and ordered the boats in the capital to patrol Co Luy immediately to block the enemy. 118
	4/1851	Ten boats of pirates invaded Con Lon Island (in the Vinh Long province). The custodians of the island were negligent and were demoted. King Tu Duc sent people to combat the sea invaders. 119
	4/1851	Sea pirates robbed transport ships off the coast of the Dai Ap estuary (in the Quang Nam province). The boats in the same delegation, and officials from the capital and the provinces, could not support destroying the enemy, so were impeached. The king sent Ton That Su, the commander of Quang Nam, to command the military boats, and sent Pham Xich, the commander from the capital, to take his military to the boats to fight the enemy. 120
	5/1851	Nguyen Huu Vien and Tran Lieu, with their military boats, met the enemy at the Thi Nai beach station (the Binh Dinh province), fighting with them. They met the arriving Dinh Duong and Dieu Phi boats and worked together to chase the enemy to the De Di waterfront, where they shot more than 20 invaders.The enemy boats ran away. 121
	11/1851	Sea pirates appeared in the Dam Ha sea area (the Quang Yen province). The chief of Hai Ninh, Tran Quang Trong, was informed that Doan Huu Si had taken the boatmen out to find the enemy. Some were shot, some ran away, and one enemy boat was taken. The king rewarded people with merit. 122
	6/1852	Gave grants for the sacrifice of the merchants and the marine officials who died fighting and arresting sea invaders in Quang Nam. 123
	8/1853	Military boats of Hai Ninh (the Nam Dinh province) and the officials of Qinzhou (China) teamed up to fight sea invaders in the sea near Vinh Thuc Commune. They arrested and killed the invaders and took a big gun. The king awarded Tran Quang Trong and returned four surviving gang members, with the evidence of their possessions, to Qinzhou (China). 124
	4/1854	The pirates killed people and robbed merchant boats at Long Hung waterfront (the Bien Hoa province); they robbed big boats and merchant boats in the sea area of Khe Ke Chuy (the Binh Thuan province); they robbed merchant ships in the sea area of Xich Ky and Phan Ly waterfronts (the Phan Thiet province). Provincial officials who were ignorant of the attacks were demoted by the court. 125
	3/1855	The pirates robbed merchant boats in two seaports of Sa Ky and Co Luy (in the Quang Ngai province). The custodians of three types of boats: Tinh Duong, Dieu Phi, and Bang Doan, who were sent by the court to patrol, instead found a place to dock the boats safely, and were demoted. 126
	4/1855	There were three pirate boats burning the land of Hon Mo (the Khanh Hoa province); the incompetent officers who let the enemy destroy the land were demoted. 127 The pirates burned and robbed merchant boats at Cam Dai beach (the Khanh Hoa province). The patrolling boat Tuong Hoa and the boat Dang Cai met the enemy, but ran away; they were all killed. 128 The pirates robbed three merchant boats and moved to Chiem Du Island (the Quang Nam province). The captain Tri (from Truong Dong village, in the Khanh Hoa province), killed three invaders in the boat as soon as he saw them, caught three invaders alive and one woman (who had been captured by the enemy), then sailed the boat to escape. The patrolling boat did not come to support in time, so Tri’s boat docked on Chiem Du Island and brought the criminals to the province. The provincial officials reported the incident. The king rewarded the captain Tri with 100 coins and ordered the officers to continue patrolling to arrest the enemy on the sea. 129
	6/1855	Pirates robbed merchant boats at Thi Nai estuary (the Binh Dinh province), and then robbed the public boats in another sea area. The custodians and provincial officials were demoted by the Nguyen Dynasty. 130
	6/1855	The cruiser patrolled in Quang Nam, attacking three enemy boats on Chiem Du Island (Quang Ngai), and took a boat from the enemy. The King rewarded 100 coins to people with merit. The money in the enemy’s boats was also used as rewards. 131
	6/1855	The pirates robbed six merchant boats and transport boats in the sea area of Long An (the Bien Hoa province). The custodians and envoys of the province, the envoys of the capital, of the province, and the officials sitting on the boat were all demoted by the court. 132
	4/1856	The pirates robbed three merchant boats in Nha Phu estuary (the Khanh Hoa province). The provincial officials and custodians were all demoted. 133
	5/1856	The pirates robbed transport boats in the sea area of Dong Long Vinh (the Binh Thuan province). Captain Nguyen Ngoan was killed by the enemy; the imperial court issued a death warrant. The provincial mandarin (Ngo Khac Kiem, the commander Doan Linh) and the custodian were demoted to different ranks. 134
	6/1856	The pirates robbed five merchant boats in Van Phong and Cam Ninh (the Khanh Hoa province). The provincial mandarin, officers, and custodians were demoted to different ranks. 135
	12/1856	There were three invading boats chasing merchant boats offshore in La Ha and Vi Ne (the Binh Thuan province). The provincial mandarin asked the court to call 100 more soldiers to patrol on the sea (to assist the current soldiers on duty). The royal court approved the proposal to proceed. 136
	1/1857	Invading boats robbed merchant boats in the Cam Ranh sea area (the Khanh Hoa province). The custodian Tran Ba Mao held a meeting to bring people to kill the enemy and kept the boats. It came to the attention of King Tu Duc, who said they had merit, and rewarded people with merit and hierarchical ranks. 137
	2/1857	Invading boats robbed the boat of the Tonkin Chief around Chu Mai (Thua Thien Hue). The custodian was not careful, and the captain of Thuan An station did not know to rescue the boat, and was subject to penalty. 138
	4/1857	Seven invading boats plundered in the sea area of Da Nung (Phu An Island, the Binh Dinh province). The custodian said that the enemy was stronger than home troops and thus could not fought; he was demoted two ranks. Officials in the province and on the island had to pay a penalty of one-year’s salary. The imperial court ordered the cruisers to come to the sea to destroy the enemy. 139
	4/1857	Six invading boats plundered in the sea area of Vi Ne (the Binh Thuan province). Cruisers chased and took back the stolen boats, but the rice, money, and objects in the boats were all gone. Officials in the province with stolen boats were fined a one-year’s salary. 140
	5/1857	Invading boats robbed three merchant boats in the sea area of An Du (the Binh Dinh province). The custodians and the officials arrived to save two of them. 141
	5/1857	Merchant boats were robbed in the sea area of the Bien Hoa province; the officials of the area were unaware of the attack. The custodians of the two stations of Ma Ly and Long Hung and the provincial officials were punished differently. 142
	7/1857	Two steamboats of the Westerners went from the South of Vietnam to the North docked in Honla island (Quang Binh province) and robbed two people in Son Tieu station, taking buffaloes, pigs, and other assets. The pirates moved to the Ba Lat waterfront (the Nam Dinh Province) for a few days and then left. 143
	8/1857	Chinese merchant boats were hijacked by sea invaders at Cu Huan waterfront, in Khanh Hoa province. There were 222 people in the boat, and 50 people were injured; the court sent physicians and 100 rice buckets. Local officials, the provincial officials, and the officers who guarded and patrolled the station were sentenced by the court at various levels. 144
	9/1857	The Nguyen Dynasty rewarded officials of the Ha Tien province with the merits of catching the sea enemy. Previously (in lucrative May), four naval boats harassed and plundered at Kim Dau station (the Binh Dinh province). Le Quang Nguyen and a provincial judge took the troops and divided, arresting 43 gang members alive, killing 51, cutting ears, and taking guns and other weapons. The court awarded different ranks to the people with great merit and awarded money to the army. 145
	11/1857	The enemy boats arrested the custodian of Bien Son sea (the Thanh Hoa province), Dang Kim Trung, and robbed merchant boats. The incident came to King Tu Duc, who sent the provincial officials of Thanh Hoa to flexibly arrest the enemy (the state allowed them to depend on specific circumstances to respond appropriately to the enemy). 146

According to the above statistics, sometimes, the National Historian Office of the Nguyen Dynasty only reflected that the sea invasions included looting and harassing ships in the South China Sea and leaving, without giving a detailed view of whether the Nguyen Dynasty captured the invaders (for example, the sea invaders came to loot in March 1838 ¹⁴⁷ , in April 1838 ¹⁴⁸ , in June 1838 ¹⁴⁹ and in June 1839 ¹⁵⁰ ). Most of the other times when mentioning a sea invasion, the National Historian Office recorded that the military soldiers, and even civil soldiers, of the Nguyen Dynasty captured the enemy.

The Nguyen Dynasty had very serious punishment for the pirates. The killing of the enemy or the use of cannons to destroy marine invaders occurred regularly, including in December 1804 ¹⁵¹ , May 1808 ¹⁵² , June 1822 ¹⁵³ , July 1823 ¹⁵⁴ , February 1827 ¹⁵⁵ , June 1830 ¹⁵⁶ , July 1833 ¹⁵⁷ , August 1833 ¹⁵⁸ , January 1835 ¹⁵⁹ , June 1836 ¹⁶⁰ , June 1837 ¹⁶¹ , June 1838 ¹⁶² , September 1838 ¹⁶³ , March 1839 ¹⁶⁴ , April 1838 ¹⁶⁵ , December 1841 ¹⁶⁶ , September 1842 ¹⁶⁷ , November 1851 ¹⁶⁸ , April 1855 ¹⁶⁹ , and September 1857 ¹⁷⁰ .

More than once, the captured invaders were also executed by the Nguyen kings, and their heads were hung in coastal places to deter the enemy (such as in June 1838 ¹⁷¹ and June 1837 ¹⁷² ). If the invaders were under 18 years old, ‘they had their five fingers on the right hand cut, [and were] given to the merchant ships to take them to trading locations to release with long-lasting fear’ (June 1837). ¹⁷³

The people who captured the sea invaders were rewarded very handsomely by the Nguyen Dynasty. For example: the Nguyen Dynasty offered promotion and reward money to the army to capture the enemy in February 1806 ¹⁷⁴ , July 1823 ¹⁷⁵ , September 1826 ¹⁷⁶ , February 1827 ¹⁷⁷ , September 1832 ¹⁷⁸ , August 1833 ¹⁷⁹ , April 1835 ¹⁸⁰ , June 1837 ¹⁸¹ , June 1838 ¹⁸² , December 1841 ¹⁸³ , February 1847 ¹⁸⁴ , July 1847 ¹⁸⁵ , September 1849 ¹⁸⁶ , September 1851 ¹⁸⁷ , June 1852 ¹⁸⁸ , August 1853 ¹⁸⁹ , April 1855 ¹⁹⁰ , June 1855 ¹⁹¹ , January 1857 ¹⁹² , September 1857 ¹⁹³ , and October 1858 ¹⁹⁴ . For those who were lost in combat with the invaders, or through stress of weather, the Nguyen emperors gave survivorship, showing the court’s gratitude. For example, in June 1836, Binh Dinh’s soldiers marched on the sea and met Chinese invaders in the waters of the Phan Thiet province. Captain Do Quyet Suu urged soldiers to shoot the enemy; unfortunately, he was killed. King Minh Menh sent more people to chase the enemy and granted double survivorship to Do Viet Suu ¹⁹⁵ . In October 1840, 180 people sailing the Thanh Hai boat to Tran Son Tay to fight the enemy drifted and went missing. Shortly thereafter, King Ming Menh gave double survivorship to the families of the victims, making an altar for sacrifice. ¹⁹⁶ These actions of the Nguyen Dynasty expressed the court’s gratitude to the people who were sacrificed and was a major source of encouragement to the Vietnam army’s and the people’s morale in fighting the pirates.

However, there were also harsh penalties for failure. The Nguyen Dynasty rewarded the people for meritorious services but very strictly punished those who erred. Among the more common mistakes were not strictly checking and monitoring, and thereby providing the pirates with an opportunity, as in June 1830 ¹⁹⁷ January 1835 ¹⁹⁸ , October 1835 ¹⁹⁹ , May 1838 ²⁰⁰ , and May 1857 ²⁰¹ . Among the other issues which cropped up were failures of command and control, which could cause several deaths, as in April 1832 ²⁰² , whilst simple cowardice – running away and hiding in the face of a sea invasion – also occurred, such as in January 1837 ²⁰³ . Conversely, there were also problems of over eagerness, with captains arresting innocent merchant boats on the pretext that they were pirates, as in March 1836. ²⁰⁴ All were punished by the Nguyen Dynasty as a strong deterrence to others. The penalty was usually demotion, with 80 lashes. The Nguyen court severely punished cowardly officers, who saw the enemy and neglected to fight. For example, in January 1837, the Quang Ngai provincial governor went to sea and encountered three enemy ships. Encountering strong resistance from the enemy, the combatant captain Tran Van Thuc and his soldiers jumped into the water. The soldiers were rescued by civilians, and then these boats, with the soldiers and civilians on board, were then stolen by the pirates. Upon being reported, Minh Menh ordered the beheading of Tran Van Thuc, displaying his head to deter people, and the soldiers were subjected to 100 lashes and had to wear a heavy shackle for a month, whilst other officers were detained or demoted. ²⁰⁵ These serious actions of the Nguyen Dynasty were needed to deter such actions; reinforcing the responsibility and morale of the imperial and local military.

Pirates were strictly punished via the heavy penalties mentioned above, but when the enemy surrendered they were often forgiven. For example, the Nguyen Dynasty forgave the sins of, and even returned the wealth and provided food for, the Te Ngoi sea invaders (Chinese invaders) in April 1806 ²⁰⁶ and May 1808 ²⁰⁷ when they surrendered. As in the decree in 1806 of King Gia Long, when the enemy surrendered, the court was tolerant, for the Nguyen Dynasty’s ‘method of treatment is based on faithfulness … they have turned their hearts against the evils. Boats and weapons should be submitted to the government. The wealth in the boats are all returned and granted with food, chose land to stay so that they lure the gangs to surrender, if they do not want to, then let them go.’ ²⁰⁸

It is noteworthy that during this period there was collaboration between the Nguyen and Qing dynasties in maritime anti-piracy operations. Among the pirates in the South China Sea, the Tau O (Chinese) were the most common invaders in the seventeenth century, when the Qing Dynasty destroyed the Ming Dynasty. Many Ming officials escaped into the woods or fled to the sea, gradually degenerating and joining the coastal pirates in southern China and northern Vietnam. If they attacked in the South China Sea, they could run to the northeast of Vietnam and vice versa. Facing this widespread activity, the Nguyen court actively cooperated with the Manchu government to solve the problem. Border officials along the Vietnam-China border kept each other informed of the security situation throughout the nineteenth century. ²⁰⁹ The Nguyen Dynasty sent troops to arrest marine enemies who escaped the Qing army. For example, in March 1807, Chinese invaders led by Thai Khien and Chu Phan were chased by the Qing government into the sea. The governor of Liang Guang (Guangdong, Guangxi) sent a letter to the governor of Bac Thanh (Vietnam) saying that the enemy ships had green prows and red masts, asking for assistance in arresting them if they ran to Vietnamese waters. Upon receipt of this letter, King Gia Long of the Nguyen Dynasty ordered the coastal provinces from Quang Duc (an old province on the plateau of Mo Nong in the Central Highlands of Vietnam) to its Northern provinces to send boats to patrol. ²¹⁰

In March 1808, more than 80 enemy boats arrested by the Chinese army fled to Yen Quang (the Quang Ninh province, Vietnam). The Nguyen Dynasty received the news, brought their boats, beheaded more than 10 invaders, and captured more than 60 people. ²¹¹

It was not only the Chinese court asking the Nguyen Dynasty to coordinate and cope with the naval invasion. In some cases, the Nguyen Dynasty also took the lead in coordinating with the Qing Dynasty. For example, in August 1842, in the waters of Nam Dinh and Quang Yen (the Quang Ninh province) in Vietnam, pirates cause obstacles and difficulties for merchant ships. Provincial officials were unable to defend themselves against these pirates. King Thieu Tri of the Nguyen Dynasty sent soldiers from Hue, the imperial city, to the south and from Hue to the north to neautralise the threat. King Thieu Tri also asked Guangdong (China) to protect them from harrassment by invaders. ²¹²

According to the National Historian Office of the Nguyen Dynasty, after capturing Chinese invaders in the waters of Vietnam, the Nguyen Dynasty frequently assigned captives to Qinzhou (China). This happened, among other times, in September 1842 ²¹³ , April 1844 ²¹⁴ , May 1846 ²¹⁵ , and September 1849. ²¹⁶

When the Chinese military was tasked with expelling the enemy, they were wrecked in the sea off Vietnam. They were assisted by the Nguyen Dynasty, who brought them back to China. In 1860, General Governor Qiongzhou (China) sent people to the sea to patrol, but they were blown off course and into the Kim Bong sea in the Binh Dinh province (Vietnam). King Tu Duc (the Nguyen Dynasty) ordered Binh Dinh province to give them rice and money, and repair the damaged boats. ²¹⁷ Similarly, in April 1843, when the Vietnamese army was sent to fight the pirates, they drifted to the sea area of Qinzhou (China), and the Qing dynasty returned them to the Quang Yen province (Vietnam). ²¹⁸

Clearly, the cooperation between the Qing Dynasty (China) and the Nguyen Dynasty in the nineteenth-century greatly contributed to the fight against piracy in the South China Sea, ensuring maritime security and safety for ships travelling there.

Conclusion

Anti-piracy activities in the South China Sea of Vietnam continued throughout the first half of the nineteenth century, demonstrating a proactive and positive attitude on the part of the Nguyen Dynasty in protecting maritime safety and security, and enforcing sovereignty over the South China Sea.

To prevent piracy, a widespread problem for not only Vietnam, the Nguyen Dynasty applied many different methods, from necessary preventive measures to extremely strict punishments against the pirates, and yet there were also acts of tolerance towards enemies who surrendered and repented. The cooperation of the Nguyen court with the Qing court for the prevention of piracy in the first half of the nineteenth century brought considerable success in protecting maritime safety and security, thus showing the spirit and the high international responsibility of the Nguyen Dynasty before the problems in the South China Sea.

Relying on the principles of territorial appropriation in international law (which real possession of the territory must: 1. Be carried out by the State; 2. Be carried out in a derelict territory (Res Nullius), or on a territory abandoned by a previously derelict country; 3. Exercise its sovereignty to the necessary extent; and 4. Territorial rights must be continuous and peaceful ²¹⁹ and, if based on the method of ‘consolidating sovereignty by historical titular’, means that the nation has long used the territory without the opposition of any other country, ²²⁰ clearly, the preventive actions and actions against pirates in the South China Sea during the first half of the nineteenth century of the Nguyen Dynasty are a vivid illustration of the real possession of this dynasty of the islands and waters. The obligations of states in matters of maritime safety and security have not been addressed in international legal instruments until now. ²²¹ The active and continuous activities against piracy on the sea, thus ensuring the security and safety of ships and boats travelling in and out of the South China Sea, of the Nguyen Dynasty are honourable. This international responsibility is also a taciturn statement about the real entitlement of the Nguyen Dynasty to the South China Sea, including the Spratly and Paracel Islands.