A series of cellulose/soy protein isolate (SPI) sponges was prepared using a freeze-drying process. The effect of the SPI content on the structure of the sponges was characterized by Fourier transform infrared spectrometry (FT-IR), X-ray diffraction analysis (XRD) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). It showed that the sponges were porous in structure, and that the size of the pores increased and the thickness of the pore walls decreased as the SPI content of the sponges increased. The biocompatibility and biodegradability of the sponges were evaluated in vitro and in vivo. The cell culture experiment and SEM observations showed that L929 fibroblast cells grew and spread well on the surface and cross-section of the composite sponges. The results from MTT (3-[4,5-dimethyl-2-thiazoly1]-2,5-diphenyl-2H-tetrazolium bromide) assay indicated that the cell viability of L929 cultured in extracts from SPI-containing sponges was higher than that from the pure cellulose sponge. The historical analysis and SEM observation revealed that the SPI-containing sponges implanted from 1 to 8 months in rats exhibited better in vivo biocompatibility and biodegradability than the pure cellulose sponge. This was due to the incorporation of SPI into cellulose and to the freeze-drying process which formed large pores and thin pore walls in the composite sponges, promoting the migration of cells and tissue into the sponges, leading to gradual fusing with the implants. The new cellulose/SPI sponges thus have potential applications as biomaterials with good biocompatibility and biodegradability.
Klemm, D., Heublein, B., Fink, H.P. and Bohn, A. ( 2005). Cellulose: Fascinating Biopolymer and Sustainable Raw Material. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed., 44(22): 3358-3393.
2.
Schurz, J. ( 1999). ‘Trends in Polymer Science’ A Bright Future for Cellulose. Prog. Polym. Sci., 24(4): 481-483.
3.
Entcheva, E. , Bien, H., Yin , Y., Chung, C.Y., Farrell, M. and Kostov, Y. (2004). Functional Cardiac Cell Constructs on Cellulose-Based Scaffolding. Biomaterials, 25(26): 5753-5762.
4.
Chang, R.K. and Price, J.C. ( 1988). Aliphatic Polyesters and Cellulose-Based Polymers for Controlled Release Applications. J. Biomater. Appl., 3(1): 80-101.
5.
Miyamoto, T. , Takahashi, S., Ito , H. and Inagaki, H. (1989). Tissue Biocompatibility of Cellulose and its Derivatives. J. Biomater. Res., 23(1): 125-133.
6.
Liu, J.L. , Wang, J.Q., Bachas, L.G. and Bhattacharyya , D. (2001 ). Activity Studies of Immobilized Subtilisin on Functionalized Pure Cellulose-Based Membranes. Biotechnol. Prog., 17(5): 866-871.
7.
Sakai, K. ( 1989). Structure And Permeability of Dialysis Membranes Sterilized by Various Methods. J. Biomater. Appl., 4(2): 71-101.
8.
Yang, M.B., Vacanti, J.P. and Ingber, D.E. ( 1994). Hollow Fibers for Hepatocyte Encapsulation and Transplantation-Studies of Survival and Function in Rats. Cell Transplant., 3(5): 373-385.
9.
Kino, Y., Sawa, M., Kasai, S. and Mito, M. ( 1998). Multiporous Cellulose Microcarrier for the Development of a Hybrid Artificial Liver Using Isolated Hepatocytes. J. Surg. Res., 79(1): 71-76.
10.
Martson, M. , Viljanto, J., Hurme, T. and Saukko, P. ( 1998). Biocompatibility of Cellulose Sponge with Bone. Eur. Surg. Res., 30(6): 426-432.
11.
Martson, M. , Viljanto, J., Hurme, T., Laippala, P. and Saukko, P. ( 1999). Is Cellulose Sponge Degradable or Stable as Implantation Material? An in vivo Subcutaneous Study in the Rat. Biomaterials , 20(21): 1989-1995.
12.
Raftery, A.T. (1980). Absorbable Haemostatic Materials and Intraperitoneal Adhesion Formation. Br. J. Surg. , 67(1): 57-58.
13.
Shimanuki, T., Nishimura, K., Montz , F.J., Nakamura, R.M. and Dizerega, G.S. (1987). Localized Prevention of Postsurgical Adhesion Formation and Reformation with Oxidized Regenerated Cellulose. J. Biomed. Mater. Res., 21(2): 173-185.
14.
Pulkkinen, H., Tiitu, V., Lammentausta , E., Laasanen, M.S., Hamalainen, E.R., Kiviranta, I. and Lammi, M.J. (2006). Cellulose Sponge as a Scaffold for Cartilage Tissue Engineering. Bio-med. Mater. Eng., 16(4): S29-35.
15.
Ekholm, E., Tommila, M., Forsback, A., Märtson, M., Holmbom, J., Ääritalo, V., Finnberg, C., Kuusilehto, A., Salonen, J., Yli-Urpo, A. and Penttinen, R. ( 2005). Hydroxyapatite Coating of Cellulose Sponge Does Not Improve Its Osteogenic Potency in Rat Bone. Acta Biomater. , 1(5): 535-544.
16.
Tommila, M. , Jokinen, J., Wilson , T., Forsback, A.P., Saukko, P., Penttinen, R. and Ekholm, E. (2008). Bioactive Glass-Derived Hydroxyapatite-Coating Promotes Granulation Tissue Growth in Subcutaneous Cellulose Implants in Rats. Acta Biomater. , 4(2): 354-361.
17.
Sashina, E.S. , Janowska, G., Zaborski , M. and Vnuchkin, A.V. (2007). Compatibility of Fibroin/Chitosan and Fibroin/Cellulose Blends Studied by Thermal Analysis. J. Therm. Anal. Calorim., 89(3): 887-891.
18.
Freire, C.S.R. and Gandini, A. (2006). Recent Advances in the Controlled Heterogeneous Modification of Cellulose for the Development of Novel Materials. Cellul. Chem. Technol., 40(9-10): 691-698.
19.
De Taillac, L.B., Porté-Durrieu , M.C., Labrugère, C., Bareille, R., Amédée, J. and Baquey, C. ( 2004). Grafting of RGD Peptides to Cellulose to Enhance Human Osteoprogenitor Cells Adhesion and Proliferation. Compos. Sci. Technol., 64(6): 827-837.
20.
Yoshida, A. , Miyazaki, T., Ashizuka, M. and Ishida, E. ( 2006). Bioactivity and Mechanical Properties of Cellulose/Carbonate Hydroxyapatite Composites Prepared in situ Through Mechanochemical Reaction . J. Biomater. Appl., 21(2): 179-194.
21.
Marsano, E. , Corsini, P.Conio, G., Canetti, M., and Freddi, G. ( 2008). Regenerated Cellulose-Silk Fibroin Blends Fibers. Int. J. Biolog. Macromol., 43(2): 106-114.
22.
Hart, J., Silcock, D., Gunnigle, S., Cullen, B., Light, N.D. and Watt P.W. ( 2002). The Role of Oxidised Regenerated Cellulose/Collagen in Wound Repair: Effects in vitro on Fibroblast Biology and in vivo in a Model of Compromised Healing. Int. J. Biochem. Cell Biol., 34(12): 1557-1570.
23.
Yang, G., Zhang, L., Han, H. and Zhou, J. ( 2001). Cellulose/Casein Blend Membranes from Naoh/Urea Solution . J. Appl. Polym. Sci., 81(13): 3260-3267.
24.
Romero-Bastida, C.A., Flores-Huicochea , E., Martin-Polo, M.O., Velazquez, G. and Torres, J.A. (2004). Compositional and Moisture Content Effects on the Biodegradability of Zein-Ethylcellulose Films. J. Agric. Food Chem., 52(8): 2230-2235.
25.
Chen, Y. and Zhang, L. ( 2004). Blend Membranes Prepared from Cellulose and Soy Protein Isolate in Naoh/Thiourea Aqueous Solution. J. Appl. Polym. Sci., 94(2): 748-757.
26.
Chen, Y., Zhang, L., Liu, J. and Gu, J. ( 2004). Physical Properties of Microporous Membranes Prepared by Hydrolyzing Cellulose/Soy Protein Blends. J. Membr. Sci. , 241(2): 393-402.
27.
Vaz, C.M. , Van Doeveren, P.F.N.M., Reis, R.L. and Cunha, A.M. (2003). Soy Matrix Drug Delivery Systems Obtained by Melt-Processing Techniques. Biomacromolecules , 4(6): 1520-1529.
28.
Luo, L.H. , Wang, X.M., Zhang, Y.F., Liu , Y.M., Chang, P.R., Wang, Y. and Chen, Y. (2008). Physical Properties and Biocompatibility of Cellulose/Soy Protein Isolate Membranes Coagulated from Acetic Aqueous Solution. J. Biomater. Sci. Polym. Ed., 19(4): 476-496.
29.
Schoof, H., Apel, J., Heschel, I. and Rau, G. ( 2001). Control of Pore Structure and Size in Freeze-Dried Collagen Sponges. J. Biomed. Mater. Res., 58(4): 352-357.
30.
Ryan, C.K. and Sax, H.C. ( 1995). Evaluation of a Carboxymethylcellulose Sponge for Prevention of Postoperative Adhesions. Am. J. Surg., 169(1): 154-160.
31.
ISO 10993-12 : 2002 . Biological Evaluation of Medical Devices Part 12: Sample Preparation and Reference Materials.
32.
ISO 10993-5 : 1999. Biological Evaluation of Medical Devices Part 5: Tests for in vitro Cytotoxicity .
33.
Zange, R. and Kissel, T. ( 1997). Comparative in vitro Biocompatibility Testing of Cyanoacrylates and Poly(D,L-Lactide) Using Different Mouse Fibroblast (L929) Cell Culture Models. Eur. J. Pharm. Biopharm., 44(2): 149-157.
34.
Serrano, M.C. , Pagani, R., Vallet-Regí , M., Peña, J., Rámila, A., Izquierdo, I. and Portolés, M.T. (2004 ). In vitro Biocompatibility Assessment of Poly(ε-Caprolactone) Films Using L929 Mouse Fibroblasts. Biomaterials, 25(5): 5603-5611.
35.
Velayudhan, S. , Anilkumar, T.V., Mohanan, P.V., Fernandez, A.C., Varma, H.K. and Ramesh, P. (2005). Biological Evaluation of Pliable Hydroxyapatite-Ethylene Vinyl Acetate Co-Polymer Composites Intended for Cranioplasty. Acta Biomater., 1(2): 201-209.
36.
ISO 10993-6 : 1994. Biological Evaluation of Medical Devices Part 6: Tests for Local Effects after Implantation.
37.
Subirade, M. , Kelly, I., Guéguen , J. and Pézolet, M. ( 1998 ). Molecular Basis of Film Formation from a Soybean Protein: Comparison Between the Conformation of Glycinin in Aqueous Solution and in Films. Int. J. Biol. Macromol., 23(4): 241-249.
38.
Schmidt, V. , Giacomelli, C. and Soldi, V. ( 2005). Thermal Stability of Films Formed by Soy Protein Isolateesodium Dodecyl Sulfate. Polym. Degrad. Stabl., 87(1): 25-31.
39.
Hishikawa, Y., Inoue S., Magoshi J. and Kondo T. (2005). Novel Tool for Characterization of Noncrystalline Regions in Cellulose: A FTIR Deuteration Monitoring and Generalized Two-Dimensional Correlation Spectroscopy . Biomacromolecules , 6(5): 2468-2473.
40.
Franěk, F., Hohenwarter, O. and Katinger, H. (2000). Plant Protein Hydrolysates: Preparation of Defined Peptide Fractions Promoting Growth and Production in Animal Cells Cultures. Biotechnol. Prog., 16(5): 688-692.
41.
Yi, F., Li, Q., Guo, Z.X. and Yu, J. ( 2006). Immobilization of Soluble Eggshell Membranprotein on Polyethylene Film Surface: Effect on the Culture of NIH3T3 in vitro. J. Appl. Polym. Sci., 99(4): 1340-1345.
42.
Jia, J. , Duan, Y.Y., Yu , J. and Lu , J.W. (2008). Preparation and Immobilization of Soluble Eggshell Membrane Protein on the Electrospun Nanofibers to Enhance Cell Adhesion and Growth. J. Biomed. Mater. Res. Part A, 86(2): 364-373.
43.
Chun, B., Kim, J., Lee, H. and Chung, N. ( 2007). Usability of Size-Excluded Fractions of Soy Protein Hydrolysates for Growth and Viability of Chinese Hamster Ovary Cells in Protein-Free Suspension Culture. Bioresour. Technol., 98(5): 1000-1005.
44.
Wang, Y.Z., Rudym, D.D., Walsh, A., Abrahamsen, L., Kim, H.J., Kim, H.S., Kirker-Head, C. and Kaplan, D.L. ( 2008). In vivo Degradation of Three-Dimensional Silk Fibroin Scaffolds. Biomaterials, 29(24-25): 3415-3428.
