Haemocompatibility of titanium and its alloys

Abstract

This review outlines the current understanding of the interactions of titanium and its alloys with blood components, and the ways in which surface modification techniques can be used to alter the surface physicochemical and topographical features that determine blood–material interactions. Surface modification of the spontaneously formed titanium oxide surface layer is a highly attractive means of improving haemocompatibility without forgoing the advantageous mechanical and physical properties of titanium and its alloys. A number of surface modification techniques and treatment processes are discussed in the context of enhancing the haemocompatibility of titanium and its alloys, with a view to optimising the clinical efficacy of blood-contacting devices and materials.

Keywords

Haemocompatibility titanium anodic oxidation superplastic forming

Get full access to this article

View all access options for this article.

References

Cacciafesta

Humphris

ADL

Jandt

. An ultraflat titanium surface for biomolecule adsorption studies by atomic force microscopy. In: Sixth world biomaterials congress transactions, Hawaii, HI, 15–20 May 2000, p.287. Minneapolis, MN: Society for Biomaterials.

Courtney

Lamba

NMK

Sundaram

. Biomaterials for blood-contacting applications. Biomaterials 1994; 15: 737–744.

Holland

Marchant

. Individual plasma proteins detected on rough biomaterials by phase imaging AFM. J Biomed Mater Res 2000; 51: 307–315.

Maitz

Pham

Wieser

. Blood compatibility of titanium oxides with various crystal structure and element doping. J Biomater Appl 2003; 17: 303–319.

Huang

Yang

Leng

. Hemocompatibility of titanium oxide films. Biomaterials 2003; 24: 2177–2187.

Clarotti

Schue

Sledz

. Modification of the biocompatible and haemocompatible properties of polymer substrates by plasma-deposited fluorocarbon coatings. Biomaterials 1992; 13: 832–840.

Kawamoto

Mori

Terano

. Blood compatibility of polypropylene surfaces in relation to the crystalline-amorphous microstructure. J Biomater Sci Polymer Ed 1997; 8: 859–877.

Kaelble

Moacanin

. A surface energy analysis of bioadhesion. Polymer 1977; 18: 475–482.

Ruckenstein

Gourisankar

. A surface energetic criterion of blood compatibility of foreign surface. J. Colloid Interf Sci 1984; 10: 436–451.

10.

Baszkin

Lyman

. The interaction of plasma proteins with polymers. I. Relationship between polymer surface energy and protein adsorption/desorption. J Biomed Mater Res 1980; 14: 393–403.

11.

Hanson

Ratner

. Evaluation of blood–materials interactions. In: Ratner

Hoffman

Schoen

Lemons

(eds) Biomaterials science: an introduction to materials in medicine. San Diego, CA: Elsevier Academic Press, 2004, pp.367–379.

12.

Ratner

. Characterisation of biomaterial surfaces. Cardiovasc Pathol 1993; 2: 87S–100S.

13.

Kagarov

Standberg

Synek

. Hydrophilized polyethylene catheters. J Biomed Mater Res 1976; 10: 1–7.

14.

Courtney

Robertson

Jones

. Blood compatibility of biomaterials in artificial organs. In: Paul

Barbenel

Courtney

Kenedi

(eds) Progress in bioengineering. Bristol: Adam Hilger, 1989, pp.21–27.

15.

Kim

Ebert

Lin

. Nonthrombogenie polymers: pharmaceutical approaches. Am Soc Artif Intern Organs J 1983; 6: 76–87.

16.

Fougnot

Labarre

Jozefonwicz

. Modifications to polymer surfaces to improve blood compatibility. In: Hastings

Ducheyne

(eds) Macromolecular biomaterials. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, 1984, pp.215–238.

17.

Larm

Larsson

Olsson

. Surface-immobilised heparin. In: Lane

Lindehl

(eds) Heparin –chemical and biological properties, clinical applications. London: Edward Arnold, 1989, pp.597–608.

18.

Kambic

Murabayashi

Nose

. Biolized surfaces as chronic blood compatible interfaces. In: Szycher

(ed.) Biocompatible polymers, metals and composites. Lancaster, PA: Technomic, 1983, pp.179–198.

19.

Ishihara

Ziats

Tierney

. Protein adsorption from human plasma is reduced on phospholipid polymers. J Biomed Mater Res 1991; 25: 1397–1407.

20.

Ishihara

Takayama

Nakabayashi

. Improvement of blood compatibility on cellulose dialysis membrane. Biomaterials 1992; 13: 235–239.

21.

Long

Rack

. Titanium alloys in total joint replacement – a materials science perspective. Biomaterials 1998; 19: 1621–1639.

22.

Kasemo

. Biocompatibility of titanium implants: surface science aspects. J Prosthet Dent 1983; 49: 832–837.

23.

Steinemann

. Corrosion of surgical implants – in vivo and in vitro tests. In: Winter

Leray

de Groot

(eds) Evaluation of biomaterials. New York, NY: John Wiley and Sons, 1980, pp.1–34.

24.

Steinemann

. Corrosion of titanium and titanium alloys for surgical implants. In: Lutjering

Zwicker

Bunk

(eds) Titanium, science and technology: proc 5th intl conf titanium. Oberursel: Deutsche Gesellschaft Metallkunde, 1985, pp.1373–1379.

25.

Sunny

Sharma

. Titanium-protein interaction: change with oxide layer thickness. J Biomater Appl 1991; 5: 89–98.

26.

Huang

Chen

Liu

. In vitro investigation of blood compatibility of ti with oxide layer of rutile structure. J Biomater Appl 1994; 8: 404–412.

27.

Lausmaa

Kasemo

. Surface spectroscopic characterization of titanium implant materials. Appl Surf Sci 1990; 45: 133–146.

28.

Murray

Wriedt

. O-Ti (Oxygen-Titanium). In: Massalski

Okamoto

Subramania

Kacprzak

(eds) Binary alloy phase diagrams. Materials Park, OH: ASM International, 1990, pp.2924–2927.

29.

Song

Wang

Xiao

. Effect of microstructural features on the electrical properties of TiO2. Mater Sci Eng B 2002; 94: 40–47.

30.

McAlarney

Oshiro

McAlarney

. Effects of titanium dioxide passive film crystal structure, thickness, and crystallinity on C3 adsorption. Int J Oral Max Impl 1996; 11: 73–80.

31.

Chen

Leng

Tian

. Antithrombogenic investigation of surface energy and optical bandgap and hemocompatibility mechanism of Ti(Ta+5)O2 thin films. Biomaterials 2002; 23: 2545–2552.

32.

Baurschmidt

Schaldach

. Alloplastic materials for heart-valve prostheses. Med Biol Eng Comput 1980; 18: 496–502.

33.

Donald

. Biomaterials and bioengineering handbook. New York, NY: Marcel Dekker, 2000, pp. 206–206.

34.

Buddy

Allan

Frederick

. Biomaterials science: an introduction to materials in medicine. New York, NY: Academic Press, 1996, pp. 139–139.

35.

Frederick

David

. Biomaterials science and biocompatibility. New York, NY: Springer, 1999, pp. 296–296.

36.

Wisbey

Gregson

Peter

. Effect of surface treatment on the dissolution of titanium-based implant materials. Biomaterials 1991; 12: 470–473.

37.

Baurschmidt

Schaldach

. The electrochemical aspects of the thrombogenicity of a material. J Bioeng 1997; 1: 261–278.

38.

Leng

Chen

Yang

. The microstructure and properties of titanium dioxide films synthesized by unbalanced magnetron sputtering. Nucl Instrum Methods Phys Res Sect B 2007; 257: 451–454.

39.

Chen

Huang

Yang

. Synthesis and properties study of titanium dioxide doped with tantalum. In: Transactions of the sixth world biomaterials congress (American), Hawaii, HI, 15–20 May 2000, p.1026. Minneapolis, MN: Society for Biomaterials.

40.

Hunt

Parratt

Cable

. Activation of coagulation and platelets is affected by the hydrophobicity of artificial surfaces. Blood Coagul Fibrin 1997; 8: 223–231.

41.

Coleman

Gregonis

Andrade

. Blood-materials interactions: the minimum interfacial free energy and the optimum polar/apolar ratio hypotheses. J Biomed Mater Res 1982; 16: 381–398.

42.

Iwasaki

Mikami

Kurita

. Reduction of surface-induced platelet activation on phospholipid polymer. J Biomed Mater Res 1997; 36: 508–515.

43.

Galli

Sommariva

Prati

. Acute and mid-term results of phosphorylcholine-coated stents in primary coronary stenting for acute myocardial infarction. Catheter Cardiovasc Interv 2001; 53: 182–187.

44.

Welle

Grunze

Tur

. Plasma protein adsorption and platelet adhesion on poly[bis(trifluoroethoxy)phosphazene]. J Colloid Interf Sci 1998; 197: 263–274.

45.

Petersson

Loberg

JEL

Fredriksson

. Semi-conducting properties of titanium dioxide surfaces on titanium implants. Biomaterials 2009; 30: 4471–4479.

46.

McDonald

Markovic

Allen

. Surface analysis of human plasma fibronectin adsorbed to commercially pure titanium materials. J Biomed Mater Res 1998; 41: 120–130.

47.

Serro

Fernandes

Saramago

. Bovine serum albumin adsorption on titania surfaces and its relation to wettability aspects. J Biomed Mater Res 1999; 46: 376–381.

48.

Deligianni

Katsala

Ladas

. Effect of surface roughness of the titanium alloy Ti–6Al-4V on human bone marrow cell response and on protein adsorption. Biomaterials 2001; 22: 1241–1251.

49.

Schneider

Korber

Grabbe

. Influence of pH on wound healing; a new perspective in wound therapy. Arch Dermatol Res 2007; 298: 413–420.

50.

Park

Wonyong

. Effects of TiO₂ surface fluorination on photocatalytic reactions and photoelectrochemical behaviours. J Phys Chem 2004; 108: 4086–4093.

51.

Textor

Sittig

Frauchiger

. Properties and biological significance of natural oxide films on titanium and its alloys. In: Brunette

Tengvall

Textor

Thomsen

(eds) Titanium in medicine. Berlin: Springer, 2001, pp.191–191.

52.

Pan

Liao

Leygraf

. Variation of oxide films on titanium induced by osteoblast-like cell culture and the influence of an H2O2 pretreatment. J Biomed Mater Res 1998; 40: 244–256.

53.

Walivaara

Lundstrom

Tengvall

. An in-vitro study of H₂O₂-treated titanium surfaces in contact with blood plasma and a simulated body fluid. Clin Mater 1993; 12: 141–148.

54.

Takemotoa

Yamamotoa

Tsurua

. Platelet adhesion on titanium oxide gels: effect of surface oxidation. Biomaterials 2004; 25: 3485–3492.

55.

Sul

Johansson

Petronis

. Characteristics of the surface oxides on turned and electrochemically oxidized pure titanium implants up to dielectric breakdown: the oxide thickness, micropore configurations, surface roughness, crystal structure and chemical composition. Biomaterials 2002; 23: 491–501.

56.

Fonseca

Traverse

Tadjeddine

. A characterization of titanium anodic oxides by X-ray absorption spectroscopy and grazing X-ray diffraction. J Electroanal Chem 1995; 388: 115–122.

57.

Sato

. A theory for breakdown of anodic oxide films on metals. Electrochim Acta 1997; 16: 1683–1692.

58.

Yahalom

. The role of the film/electrolyte interface in anodic breakdown. In: Alwitt

(ed.) Oxide-electrolyte interfaces. Princeton, NJ: Electrochemical Soc. Inc., 1973, pp.289–289.

59.

El Kader

El Wahab

FMA

El Shayeb

. Oxide film thickening on titanium in aqueous solution in relation to anion type and concentration. Br Corros J 1981; 16: 111–114.

60.

Leach

JSL

Pearson

. Crystallization in anodic oxide films. Corros Sci 1988; 28: 43–56.

61.

Mikula

Blecha

Ceppan

. Photoelectrochemical properties of anodic TiO2 layers prepared by various current density. J Electrochem Soc 1992; 139: 3470–3474.

62.

Aladjem

. Anodic oxidation of titanium and its alloy. J Mater Sci 1973; 8: 688–704.

63.

McAleer

Peter

. Photocurrent spectroscopy of anodic oxide films on titanium. Faraday Disc R Soc Chem 1980; 70: 67–80.

64.

Delplancke

Winand

. Galvanostatic anodization of titanium—I. Structures and compositions of the anodic films. Electrochim Acta 1988; 33: 1539–1549.

65.

Blackwood

Petter

. The influence of growth rate on the properties of anodic oxide films on titanium. Electrochim Acta 1989; 34: 1505–1511.

66.

Serruys

Sakout

Gorse

. Anodic oxidation of titanium in 1M H2SO4, studied by Rutherford backscattering. Surf Sci 1993; 282: 279–287.

67.

Zwilling

Darque-Ceretti

Boutry-Forveille

. Structure and physicochemistry of anodic oxide films on titanium and TA6V alloy. Surf Interface Anal 1999; 27: 629–637.

68.

Bonet

Wood

Said

. Numerical simulation of the superplastic forming of dental and medical prostheses. Biomech Model Mechanobiol 2002; 1: 177–196.

69.

Gil

Curtis

Bonet

. Finite Element Superplastic Forming (FE-SPF) of patient-specific maxillofacial prostheses. Int J Numer Methods Biomed Eng 2010; 26: 139–155.

70.

Bonet

Gil

Wood

. Simulating superplastic forming. Comput Meth Appl Mech Eng 2006; 195: 6580–6603.

71.

Curtis

. The suitability of dental investment materials as dies for superplastic forming of medical and dental prostheses. Mat-Wiss u Werkstofftech 2008; 39: 322–326.

72.

Gallus

Hirsh

. Treatment of venous thromboembolic disease. Semin Thromb Hemost 1976; 2: 291–331.

73.

Clowes

Fingerle

. Regulation of smooth muscle cell growth in injured artery. J Cardiovasc Pharm 1989; 14: S12–S15.

74.

Rogers

Parikh

Seifert

. Endogenous cell seeding: remnant endothelium after stenting enhances vascular repair. Circulation 1996; 94: 2909–2914.

75.

Herring

. Endothelial seeding of blood flow surfaces. In: Wright

(ed.) Vascular grafts: clinical applications and technics. Boston, MA: John Wiley and Sons, 1985, pp.275–275.

76.

Ischihara

Ferrans

Jones

. Occurrence and significance of endothelial cells in implanted porcine bioprosthetic valves. Am J Cardiol 1981; 48: 443–454.

77.

Fischlein

Zilla

Meinhart

. Clinical lining of prosthetic femoropopliteal bypass grafts with cultured autologous endothelial cells. Transplant Proc 1992; 24: 3043–3043.

78.

Deutsch

Meinhart

Vesely

. In vitro endothelialization of expanded polytetrafluoroethylene grafts: a clinical case report after 41 months of implantation. J Vasc Surg 1997; 25: 757–763.

79.

Deutsch

Meinhart

Fischlein

. Clinical autologous in vitro endothelialization of infrainguinal ePTFE grafts in 100 patients: a 9-year experience. Surgery 1999; 126: 847–855.

80.

Leseche

Ohan

Bouttier

. Above-knee femoropopliteal bypass grafting using endothelial cell seeded PTFE grafts: five-year clinical experience. Ann Vasc Surg 1995; 9: S15–S23.

81.

Meinhart

Deutsch

Zilla

. Eight years of clinical endothelial cell transplantation closing the gap between prosthetic grafts and vein grafts. ASAIO J 1997; 43: M515–M521.

82.

Meinhart

Deutsch

Fischlein

. Clinical autologous in vitro endothelialization of 153 infrainguinal ePTFE grafts. Ann Thorac Surg 2001; 71: S327–S331.

83.

Zilla

Deutsch

Meinhart

. Clinical in vitro endothelialization of femoropopliteal bypass grafts: an actuarial follow-up over three years. J Vasc Surg 1994; 19: 540–548.

84.

Kaushal

Amiel

Guleserian

. Functional small-diameter neovessels created using endothelial progenitor cells expanded ex vivo. Nat Med 2001; 7: 1035–1040.

85.

Reidy

Chao

Kirkman

. Endothelial regeneration. VI. Chronic nondenuding injury in baboon vascular grafts. Am J Pathol 1986; 123: 432–439.

86.

Greisler

Dennis

Endean

. Derivation of neointima in vascular grafts. Circulation 1988; 78: 6–12.

87.

Tassiopoulos

Greisler

. Angiogenic mechanisms of endothelialization of cardiovascular implants: a review of recent investigative strategies. J Biomater Sci Polym Ed 2000; 11: 1275–1284.

88.

Bruni

Martinesi

Stio

. Effects of surface treatment of Ti-6Al-4V titanium alloy on biocompatibility in cultured human umbilical vein endothelial cells. Acta Biomater 2005; 1: 223–234.

89.

Liu

Webster

. Nanomedicine for implants: a review of studies and necessary experimental tools. Biomaterials 2007; 28: 354–369.

90.

Chai

Ochsenbein

Traisnel

. Improving endothelial cell adhesion and proliferation on titanium by sol-gel derived oxide coating. J Biomed Mater Res Part A 2010; 92: 754–765.

91.

Suska

Gretzer

Esposito

. Monocyte viability on titanium and copper coated titanium. Biomaterials 2005; 26: 5942–5950.

92.

Gretzer

Gisselfält

Liljensten

. Adhesion, apoptosis and cytokine release of human mononuclear cells cultured on degradable poly(Urethane Urea), polystyrene and titanium in vitro. Biomaterials 2003; 24: 2843–2852.

93.

Martinesi

Bruni

Stio

. In vitro interaction between surface-treated Ti-6Al-4V titanium alloy and human peripheral blood mononuclear cells. J Biomed Mater Res Part A 2005; 74: 197–207.

94.

Horowitz

Doty

Lane

. Studies of the mechanism by which the mechanical failure of polymethylmethacrylate leads to bone resorption. J Bone Joint Surg 1993; 75: 802–813.

95.

Tracey

Cerami

. Tumor necrosis factor in the malnutrition (cachexia) of infection and cancer. Am J Trop Med Hyg 1992; 47: 2–7.

96.

Göransson

Gretzer

Johansson

. Inflammatory response to a titanium surface with potential bioactive properties: an in vitro study. Clin Implant Dent Relat Res 2006; 8: 210–217.

97.

Wojciak-Stothard

Madeja

Korohoda

. Activation of macrophage-like cells by multiple grooved substrata. Topographical control of cell behaviour. Cell Biol Int 1995; 19: 485–490.

98.

Rich

Harris

. Anomalous preferences of cultured macrophages for hydrophobic and roughened substrata. J Cell Sci 1981; 50: 1–7.

99.

Soskolne

Cohen

Sennerby

. The effect of titanium surface roughness on the adhesion of monocytes and their secretion of TNF-alpha and PGE2. Clin Oral Implants Res 2002; 13: 86–93.

100.

Refai

Textor

Brunette

. Effect of titanium surface topography on macrophage activation and secretion of proinflammatory cytokines and chemokines. J Biomed Mater Res Part A 2004; 70: 194–205.