The prevention of future violence through engaging violent adolescents in multisystemic therapy and the treatment of trauma with exposure therapy are two of the most important scientific advances in the field of interpersonal violence in the past 20 years. A particularly significant methodological innovation is the development of reliable and valid measures of childhood and adult attachment because attachment deficits and their remediation are central to understanding and treating perpetrators of violence. In the coming decades, we need to refine existing treatment programs to make them effective for cases currently classified as treatment resistant. This will involve psychotherapy process research on the interaction between therapeutic mechanisms of change and unique personal vulnerabilities of treatment-resistant cases.
Ainsworth, M. D., Blehar, M. C., Waters, E., & Wall, S. (1978). Patterns of attachment: A psychological study of the strange situation. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
2.
American Psychiatric Association. (2000). Diagnostic and statistical manual of the mental disorders (Text rev.). Washington, DC: Author.
3.
Aos, S., Phipps, S., Barnoski, R., & Lieb, R. (1999). The comparative costs and benefits of programs to reduce crime: A review of national research findings with implications for Washington State, version 3. Olympia: Washington State Institute for Public Policy.
4.
Bowlby, J. (1969). Attachment and loss: Vol. 1. Attachment. New York: Basic Books.
5.
Bowlby, J. (1973). Attachment and loss: Vol. 2. Separation: Anxiety and anger. New York: Basic Books.
6.
Bowlby, J. (1980). Attachment and loss: Vol. 3. Loss sadness and depression.. New York: Basic Books.
7.
Bowlby, J. (1988). A secure base: Clinical implications of attachment theory. London: Routledge.
8.
Brennan, K., Clark, C., & Shaver, P. (1998). Self-report measure of adult attachment: An integrative overview. In J. Simpson & W. Rholes (Eds.), Attachment theory and close relationships (pp. 46-76). New York: Guilford.
9.
Brewin, C. (2001). A cognitive neuroscience account of post-traumatic stress disorder and its treatment. Behavior Research and Therapy, 39, 373-393
10.
Bronfenbrenner, U. (1979). The ecology of human development: Experiments by nature and design. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
11.
Carr, A. (2000a). The effectiveness of psychological treatments of offenders. In A. Carr (Ed.), Clinical psychology in Ireland. Volume 2: Empirical studies of problems and treatment processes in adults (pp. 53-64). Ceredigion, Wales: Edwin Mellen Press.
12.
Carr, A. (2000b). Family therapy: Concepts, process, and practice. Chichester, UK: Wiley.
13.
Carr, A. (in press). Interventions for post-traumatic stress disorder in children and adolescents. Paediatric Rehabilitation.
14.
Cohen, J. (1998). Practice parameters for the assessment and treatment of children and adolescents with post-traumatic stress disorder. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 37(10), S4-S26.
15.
Crowell, J., Fraley, R. C., & Shaver, P. (1999). Measurement of individual differences in adolescent and adult attachment. In J. Cassidy & P. Shaver (Eds.), Handbook of attachment: Theory, research, and clinical applications (pp. 434-465). New York: Guilford.
16.
Dishon, T., McCord, J., & Poulin, F. (1999). When interventions harm: Peer groups and antisocial behavior. American Psychologist, 54, 755-764.
17.
Dosier, M., Stovall, C., & Albus, K. (1999). Attachment and psychopathology in adulthood. In J. Cassidy & P. Shaver (Eds.) Handbook of attachment: Theory research and clinical applications (pp. 497-519). New York: Guilford.
18.
Earls, F., & Mezzacappa, E. (2002). Conduct and oppositional disorders. In M. Rutter & E. Taylor (Eds.), Child and adolescent psychiatry (4th ed., pp. 419-436). Oxford, UK: Blackwell.
19.
Edgeworth, J., & Carr, A. (2000). Child abuse. In A. Carr (Ed.), What works with children and adolescents? A critical review of psychological interventions with children, adolescents and their families (pp. 17-48). London: Routledge.
20.
Ehlers, A., & Clark, D. M. (2000). A cognitive model of post-traumatic stress disorder. Behavior Research and Therapy, 38, 319-336.
21.
Enright, S., & Carr, A. (2002). Prevention of post-traumatic adjustment problems in children and adolescents. In A. Carr (Ed.), Prevention: What works with children and adolescents? A critical review of psychological prevention programmes for children, adolescents, and their families (pp. 314-335). London: Routledge.
22.
Foa, E., Keane, T., & Friedman, M. (2000). Effective treatments for PTSD: Guidelines from the International Society for Traumatic Stress studies. New York: Guilford.
23.
Foa, E. B., Davidson, J. R., & Frances, A. (1999). The expert consensus guideline series: Treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 60, 1-76.
24.
Foa, E. B., & Rothbaum, B. O. (1997). Treating the trauma of rape. New York: Guilford.
25.
George, C., Kaplan, N., & Main, M. (1996) The attachment interview for adults. Unpublished manuscript, Department of Psychology, University of California, Berkeley.
26.
Haley, J. (1976). Problem solving therapy. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass
27.
Henggeler, S., & Lee, T. (2003). Multisystemic treatment of serious clinical problems. In A. Kazdin & J. Weisz (Eds.), Evidence-based psychotherapies for children and adolescents (pp. 301-322). New York: Guilford.
28.
Henggeler, S. W. (1999). Multisystemic therapy: An overview of clinical procedures, outcomes, and policy implication. Child Psychology and Psychiatry Review, 4, 2-10.
29.
Henggeler, S. W., Schoenwald, S. K., Borduin, C. M., Rowland, M. D., & Cunningham, P. B. (1998). Multisystemic treatment of antisocial behavior in children and adolescents. New York: Guilford.
30.
Henggeler, S. W., Schoenwald, S. K., Rowland, M. D., & Cunningham, P. B., (2002). Serious emotional disturbance in children and adolescents: Multisystemic therapy. New York: Guilford.
31.
Keane, T. (1998). Psychological and behavioral treatments for post-traumatic stress disorder. In P. Nathan & J. Gorman (Eds.), A guide to treatments that work (pp. 398-407). New York: Oxford University Press.
32.
Keane, T., Zimering, R., & Kadell, J. (1985). A behavioral formulation of post-traumatic stress disorder. Behavior Therapist, 8, 9-12.
33.
Lyons-Ruth, K., & Jacobvitz, D. (1999). Attachment disorganization. Unresolved loss, relational violence, and lapses in behavioral and attentional strategies. In J. Cassidy & P. Shaver (Eds.) Handbook of attachment: Theory, research, and clinical applications (pp. 520-554). New York: Guilford.
34.
Marsa, F., O’Reilly, G., Carr, A., Murphy, P., O’Sullivan, M., Cotter, A., et al. (2004). Attachment styles and psychological profiles of child sex offenders in Ireland. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 19, 1-24.
35.
Minuchin, S., & Fishman, H. C. (1981). Family therapy techniques. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
36.
O’Reilly, G., & Carr, A. (2004). Evaluation of a programme for imprisoned sex offenders. Unpublished manuscript.
37.
O’Riordan, D., & Carr, A. (2002). Prevention of physical abuse. In A. Carr (Ed.), Prevention: What works with children and adolescents? A critical review of psychological prevention programmes for children, adolescents and their families (pp.154-180). London:Routledge.
38.
Rothbaum, B. O., & Foa, E. B. (1999). Exposure therapy for PTSD. PTSD Research Quarterly, 10(2), 1-8.
39.
Rutter, M., Giller, H., & Hagell, A. (1998). Antisocial behavior by young people. New York: Cambridge University Press.
40.
Schoenwald, S. K., Ward, D. M., Henggeler, S. W., Pickrel, S. G., & Patel, H. (1996). Multisystemic therapy treatment of substance abusing or dependent adolescent offenders: Costs of reducing incarceration, inpatient and residential placement. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 5, 431-444.
41.
Solomon, J., & George, C. (1999). The measurement of attachment security in infancy and childhood. In J. Cassidy & P. R. Shaver (Eds.), Handbook of attachment: Theory, research, and clinical applications (pp. 287-316). New York: Guilford.
42.
Vernberg, V., & Vogel, J. (1993). Task force report: II. Interventions with children after disasters. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 22, 464-484.
43.
World Health Organization. (1992). The ICD-10 classification of mental and behavioural disorders. Clinical descriptions and diagnostic guidelines. Geneva, Switzerland: Author.
