This study describes past-year prevalence and effects on mental health and drinking outcomes for harassment and discrimination in the workplace (HDW) in a nationally representative random digit dial phone survey conducted in 2003-2004 (n = 2,151). HDW measures included experiences and perceptions of sexual harassment (SH) and generalized workplace harassment (GWH), and perceived harassment or discrimination because of race or ethnicity. Prevalence was examined by sex, race, age, occupation, marital status, and education. Effects of HDW were assessed controlling for demo-graphics and job and life stressors. Experiencing multiple types of HDW was common. SH was more prevalent among women, and Blacks and those of other or mixed race or ethnicity experienced the highest levels of HDW overall. HDW variables explained additional variance in problem drinking and mental health beyond life and job stressors, particularly for women. This study demonstrates that HDW is a prevalent problem associated with poor mental health and problem drinking in the U.S. workforce.
Allen, J.P., Maisto, S.A., & Connors, G.J. (1995). Self-report screening tests for alcohol problems in primary care. Archives of Internal Medicine, 155, 1726-1730.
2.
Allport, G.W. (1954). The nature of prejudice. Garden City, NY: Doubleday.
3.
Aneshensel, C.S., Rutter, C.M., & Lachenbruch, P.A. (1991). Social structure, stress, and mental health: Competing conceptual and analytic models. American Sociological Review, 56, 166-178.
4.
Bjorkqvist, K., Osterman, K., & Hjelt-Back, M. (1994). Aggression among university employees. Aggressive Behavior, 20, 173-184.
5.
Bowling, N.A., & Beehr, T.A. (2006). Workplace harassment from the victim's perspective: A theoretical model and meta-analysis. Journal of Applied Psychology, 91, 998-1012.
6.
Brown, T.N. (2001). Measuring self-perceived racial and ethnic discrimination in social surveys. Sociological Spectrum, 21, 377-392.
7.
Brugha, T.S., & Cragg, D. (1990). The List of Threatening Experiences: The reliability and validity of a brief life events questionnaire. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 82(1), 77-81.
8.
Collins, P.H. (2004). Black sexual politics: African Americans, gender, and the new racism. New York: Routledge .
9.
Davies, A.R., Sherbourne, C.D., Peterson, J.R., & Ware, J.E. (1988). Scoring manual: Adult health status and patient satisfaction measures used in RAND's Health Insurance Experiment (No. N-2190-HHS) . Santa Monica, CA: RAND.
10.
Ehrenreich, R. (1999). Dignity and discrimination: Toward a pluralistic understanding of workplace discrimination. Georgetown Law Journal, 88, 1-64.
11.
Einarsen, S., Hoel, H. , Zapf, D., & Cooper, C. L. (Eds.). (2003). Bullying and emotional abuse in the workplace: International perspectives in research and practice. London: Taylor & Francis.
12.
Fendrich, M., Woodword, P., & Richman, J.A. (2002). The structure of harassment and abuse in the workplace: A factorial comparison of two measures. Violence and Victims , 17, 491-505.
13.
Fitzgerald, L.F., Hulin, C.L., & Drasgow, F. (1994). The antecedents and consequences of sexual harassment in organizations: An integrated model. In G. P. Keita & J. J. Hurrell, Jr. (Eds.), Job stress in a changing workforce: Investigating gender, diversity and family issues (pp. 55-73). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
14.
Fitzgerald, L.F., Shullman, S.L., Bailey, N., Richards, M., Swecker, J., Gold, Y., et al. (1988). The incidence and dimensions of sexual harassment in academia and the workplace. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 32, 152-175.
15.
Gelfand, M.J., Fitzgerald, L.F., & Drasgow, F. (1995). The structure of sexual harassment: A confirmatory analysis across cultures and settings. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 47, 164-177.
16.
Glomb, T.M., Munson, L.J., Hulin, C.L., Bergman, M.E., & Drasgow, F. (1999). Structural equation models of sexual harassment: Longitudinal explorations and cross-sectional generalizations. Journal of Applied Psychology, 84, 14-28.
17.
Hay, M.S., & Elig, T.W. (1999). The 1995 Department of Defense sexual harassment survey: Overview and methodology. Military Psychology, 11, 233-242.
18.
Kessler, R.C., Mickelson, K.D., & Williams, D.R. (1999). The prevalence, distribution, and mental health correlates of perceived discrimination in the United States . Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 40, 208-230.
19.
Krieger, N. (1990). Racial and gender discrimination: Risk factors for high blood pressure? Social Science and Medicine, 30, 1273-1281.
20.
Lapierre, L.M., Spector, P.E., & Leck, J.D. (2005). Sexual versus nonsexual workplace aggression and victims' overall job satisfaction: A meta-analysis. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 10, 155-169.
21.
Lavrakas, P.J. (1986). Telephone survey methods: Sampling, selection, and supervision. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
22.
Lazarus, R.S., & Folkman, S. (1984). Stress, appraisal, and coping. New York: Springer.
23.
Magley, V.J., Hulin, C.L., Fitzgerald, L.F., & DeNardo, M. (1999). Outcomes of self-labeling sexual harassment. Journal of Applied Psychology, 84, 390-402.
24.
Munson, L.J., Miner, A.G., & Hulin, C. (2001). Labeling sexual harassment in the military: An extension and replication. Journal of Applied Psychology, 86, 293-303.
25.
Noh, S., Beiser, M., Kaspar, V., Hou, F., & Rummens, J. (1999). Perceived racial discrimination, depression, and coping: A study of Southeast Asian refugees in Canada. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 40, 193-207.
26.
Park, B., & Judd, C.M. (2005). Rethinking the link between categorization and prejudice within the social cognition perspective. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 9, 108-130.
27.
Pavalko, E.K., Mossakowski, K.N., & Hamilton, V.J. (2003). Does perceived discrimination affect health? Longitudinal relationships between work discrimination and women's physical and emotional health. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 43, 18-33.
28.
Pearlin, L.I. (1999). Stress and mental health: A conceptual overview . In A. V. Horwitz & T. L. Scheid (Eds.), A handbook for the study of mental health: Social contexts, theories, and systems (pp. 161-175). New York: Cambridge University Press.
29.
Piccinelli, M., & Gomez Homen, F. (1997). Gender differences in the epidemiology of affective disorders and schizophrenia. Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization.
30.
Pokorny, A.D., Miller, B.A., & Kaplan, H.B. (1972). The Brief MAST: A shortened version of the Michigan Alcoholism Screening Test. American Journal of Psychiatry , 129, 342-345.
31.
Richman, J.A., Flaherty, J.A., & Rospenda, K.M. (1996). Perceived workplace harassment experiences and problem drinking among physicians: Broadening the stress/alienation paradigm. Addiction, 91, 391-403.
32.
Richman, J.A., Rospenda, K.M., Nawyn, S.J., Flaherty, J.A., Fendrich, M., Drum, M.L., et al. (1999). Sexual harassment and generalized workplace abuse among university employees: Prevalence and mental health correlates . American Journal of Public Health, 89, 358-363.
33.
Rospenda, K.M., & Richman, J.A. (2004). The factor structure of generalized workplace harassment. Violence and Victims, 19, 221-238.
34.
Rospenda, K.M., & Richman, J.A. (2005). Harassment and discrimination. In J. Barling, E. K. Kelloway , & M. R. Frone (Eds.), Handbook of work stress (pp. 149-188). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
35.
Rospenda, K.M., Richman, J.A., Ehmke, J.L.Z., & Zlatoper, K.W. (2005). Is workplace harassment hazardous to your health? Journal of Business and Psychology , 20, 95-110.
36.
Rospenda, K.M., Richman, J.A., Wislar, J.S., & Flaherty, J.A. (2000). Chronicity of sexual harassment and generalized work-place abuse: Effects on drinking outcomes. Addiction, 95, 1805-1820.
37.
Sanchez, J.I., & Brock, P. (1996). Outcomes of perceived discrimination among Hispanic employees: Is diversity management a luxury or a necessity? Academy of Management Journal, 39, 704-719.
Schat, A.C.H., Frone, M.R., & Kelloway, E.K. (2006). Prevalence of workplace aggression in the U.S. workforce: Findings from a national study. In E. K. Kelloway, J. Barling, & J. J. Hurrell, Jr. (Eds.), Handbook of workplace violence (pp. 47-89). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
40.
Schneider, K.T., Hitlan, R.T., & Radhakrishnan, P. (2000). An examination of the nature and correlates of ethnic harassment experiences in multiple contexts . Journal of Applied Psychology, 85, 3-12.
41.
Stanton, J.M., Balzer, W.K., Smith, P.C., Parra, L.F., & Ironson, G. (2001). A general measure of work stress: The Stress in General Scale. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 61, 866-888.
42.
Steffy, B.D., & Laker, D.R. (1991). Workplace and personal stresses antecedent to employees' alcohol use. Journal of Social Behavior and Personality , 6, 115-126.
43.
Swendsen, J.D., Tennen, H., Carney, M.A., Affleck, G., Willard, A., & Hromi, A. (2000). Mood and alcohol consumption: An experience sampling test of the self-medication hypothesis. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 109, 198-204.
44.
Turner, R.J., Wheaton, B., & Lloyd, D.A. (1995). The epidemiology of social stress. American Sociological Review, 60, 104-125.
45.
United States Merit Systems Protection Board. ( 1981). Sexual harassment of federal workers: Is it a problem?Washington, DC: Author.
46.
United States Merit Systems Protection Board. ( 1988). Sexual harassment in the federal government: An update . Washington, DC: Author.
47.
United States Merit Systems Protection Board. ( 1995). Sexual harassment in the federal workplace: Trends, progress, continuing challenges. Washington, DC: Author.
48.
Wilsnack, R.W., Vogeltanz, N.D., Wilsnack, S.C., Harris, R., Ahlstrom, S., Bondy, S., et al. (2000). Gender differences in alcohol consumption and adverse drinking consequences: Cross-cultural patterns. Addiction, 95, 251-265.
49.
Wilsnack, S.C., Klassen, A.D., Schur, B.E., & Wilsnack, R.W. (1991). Predicting onset and chronicity of women's problem drinking: A five-year longitudinal analysis. American Journal of Public Health, 81, 305-318.
