Little research has focused on the drugs—violence nexus in rural areas. As such, the purpose of this study is to use Goldstein's tripartite conceptual framework to examine the relationship between drugs and violence among felony probationers in rural Appalachian Kentucky (n = 799). Data on demo-graphics, substance use criminal history, and violence were collected between 2001 and 2004 using an interviewer-administered questionnaire. Rural probationers are partitioned into four groups based on lifetime violent victimization/perpetration experiences: (a) neither a perpetrator nor a victim, (b) perpetrator only, (c) victim only, and (d) both a perpetrator and a victim. Chi-square analyses indicate substance use, and criminal history varies across the four groups. Binary logistic regression analyses are used to explore the significant correlates of both perpetration and victimization. Multivariate analyses support both the psychopharmacological model and the economic compulsive models of perpetration and victimization. Further implications of these findings are discussed.
Appalachian Regional Commission. (2007). Socioeconomic data. Retrieved February 16, 2007, from http://www.arc.gov/search/LoadQueryData.do?queryId=1&fips=21001
2.
Basile, V.D. (2005). Getting serious about corrections. Federal Probation, 69(2), 29-31.
3.
Belenko, S., Langley, S., Crimmins, S., & Chaple, M. (2004). HIV risk behaviors, knowledge, and prevention education among offenders under community supervision: A hidden risk group . AIDS Education and Prevention, 16, 367-385.
4.
Boles, S.M., & Miotto, K. (2003). Substance abuse and violence: A review of the literature. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 8, 155-174.
5.
Carmichael, S.E., & Piquero, A.R. (2006). Deterrence and arrest ratios. International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology, 50(1), 71-87.
6.
Collins, J.J. (1990). Summary thoughts about drugs and violence. In M. De La Rosa, E. Y. Lambert, & B. Gropper, (Eds.), Drugs and violence: Causes, correlates, and consequences (NIDA Research Monograph No. 103, NIH Publication No. ADM 90-1721, pp. 265-275) . Rockville, MD: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, NIDA.
7.
Cook, P.J., & Ludwig, J. (1997). Guns in America: Results of a comprehensive national survey on firearms ownership and use. Washington, DC: Police Foundation.
8.
Conger, R.D. (1997). The special nature of rural America. In E. R. Roberstson, Z. Sloboda , G. Boyd, L. Beatty, & N. Kozol (Eds.), Rural substance abuse: State of knowledge and issues (NIDA Research Monograph No. 168, NIH Publication No. 97-180814, pp. 37-52). Rockville, MD: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, NIDA.
9.
Drug Enforcement Agency. (2007a). Kentucky factsheet. Retrieved February 16, 2007, from http://www.usdoj.gov/dea/pubs/states/kentucky.html
10.
Drug Enforcement Agency. (2007b). Fast facts about meth factsheet. Retrieved February 16, 2007 , from http://www.usdoj.gov/dea/pubs/pressrel/methfact03.html
11.
Evans, W.P., Fitzgerald, C., Weigel, D., & Chvilicek, S. (1999). Are rural gang members similar to their urban peers? Implications for rural communities. Youth & Society , 30, 267-282.
12.
Falshaw, L., Browne, K.D., & Hollin, C.R. (1996). Victim to offender: A review. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 1, 389-404.
13.
Glaze, L.E., & Bonczar, T.P. (2006). Probation and parole in the United States, 2005 (Report No. 215091). Washington, DC: Bureau of Justice Statistics, U.S. Department of Justice.
14.
Goldstein, P.J. (1985). The drugs/violence nexus: A tripartite conceptual framework. Journal of Drug Issues, 15, 493-506.
15.
Goldstein, P.J. (1991). Volume of cocaine use and violence: A comparison between men and women. Journal of Drug Issues, 14, 493-506.
16.
Goodrum, S., Wiese, H.J., & Leukefeld, C.G. (2004). Urban and rural differences in the relationship between substance use and violence. International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology, 48, 613-628.
17.
Harrison, B., & Schehr, R.C. (2004). Offenders and post-release jobs: Variables influencing success and failure. Journal of Offender Rehabilitation, 39(3), 35-68.
18.
Johnston, L.D., O'Malley, P.M., Bachman, J.G., & Schulenberg, J.E. (2006). Monitoring the future national results on adolescent drug use: Overview of key findings, 2005 (NIH Publication No. 06-5882). Bethesda, MD: National Institute on Drug Abuse.
19.
Karber, J.C., & James, D.J. (2005). Substance dependence, abuse, and treatment of jail inmates, 2002 (Report No. 209588). Washington, DC : Bureau of Justice Statistics, U.S. Department of Justice.
20.
Lake, E.S. (1993). An exploration of the violent victim experiences of female offenders. Violence and Victims, 8(1), 41-51.
21.
Leukefeld, C.G., Narevic, E., Hiller, M., Staton, M., Gillespie, W., Webster, J.M., et al. (2002). Alcohol and drug use among rural and urban incarcerated substance abusers. International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology, 46, 715-728.
22.
Leukefeld, C.G., Roberto, H., Hiller, M., Webster, M., Logan, T.K., & Staton Tindall, M. (2003). HIV prevention among high-risk and hard-to-reach rural residents. Journal of Psychoactive Drugs, 35, 427-434.
23.
MacCoun, R., Kilmer, B., & Reuter, P. (2003, July). Toward a drugs and crime research agenda for the 21st century. National Institutes of Justice Special Report. Retrieved August 2, 2006, from http://www.ncjrs.gov/pdffiles1/nij/194616.pdf
24.
Martin, S.E., Maxwell, C.D., White, H.R., & Zhang, Y. (2004). Trends in alcohol use, cocaine use, and crime: 1989-1998. Journal of Drug Issues, 34, 333-359.
25.
Martin, S.S., O'Connell, D.J., Inciardi, J.A., Beard, R.A., & Surratt, H.L. (2003). HIV/AIDS among probationers: An assessment of risk and results from a brief intervention. Journal of Psychoactive Drugs, 35, 435-443.
26.
Maxwell, J.C. (2004). Patterns of club drug use in the U.S. Retrieved October 3, 2006, from http://www.utexas.edu/research/cswr/gcattc/Trends/ClubDrug-2004-web.pdf
27.
McClelland, G.M., & Teplin, L.A. (2001). Alcohol intoxication and violent crime: Implications for public health policy. American Journal on Addictions, 10, 70-85.
28.
McCoy, H.V., Messiah, S.E., & Yu, Z. (2001). Perpetrators, victims, and observers of violence . Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 16, 890-909.
29.
McLellan, A.T., Parikh, G., Bragg, A., Cacciola, J., Fureman, B., & Incmikoski, R. (1990). Addiction severity index: Administration manual (5th ed.). Philadelphia: Pennsylvania Veterans' Administration Center for Studies of Addiction.
30.
Mertler, C.A., & Vannatta, R.A. (2002). Advanced and multivariate statistical methods. Los Angeles: Pyrczak.
31.
Miczek, K.A., & Tidey, J.W. (1989). Amphetamines: Aggressive and social behavior. In K. Asghar & E. De Souza (Eds.), Pharmacology and toxicology of amphetamine and related designer drugs (NIDA Research Monograph No. 94, NIH Publication No. ADM 89-1640, pp. 68-100). Rockville, MD: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, NIDA.
32.
National Center on Addiction and Substance Abuse at Columbia University. (2000). No place to hide: Substance abuse in mid-size cities and rural America. Retrieved October 3, 2006, from http://www.casacolumbia.org/absolutenm/articlefiles/380-No%20Place%20to%20Hide.pdf
33.
National Survey on Drug Use and Health. (2005 ). Methamphetamine use, abuse, and dependence: 2002, 2003, and 2004. Retrieved February 16, 2007, from http://www.oas.samhsa.gov/2k5/meth/meth.pdf
34.
Nurco, D.N., Kinlock, T.W., & Hanlon, T.E. (2004). The drugs-crime connection. In J. A. Inciardi & K. McEnrath (Eds.), The American drug scene: An anthology (pp. 220-234). Los Angeles: Roxbury.
35.
Oser, C., Leukefeld, C., Cosentino-Boehm, A., & Havens, J. (2006a). Rural HIV: Brief interventions for felony probationers . American Journal of Criminal Justice, 31(1), 125-143.
36.
Oser, C., Leukefeld, C., Staton-Tindall, M., Havens, J., Webster, J.M., Smiley-McDonald, H., et al. (2006b). Male and female rural probationers: HIV risk behaviors and knowledge. AIDS Care Journal, 18, 339-344.
37.
Parker, R.N., & Auerhahn, K. (1998). Alcohol, drugs, and violence. Annual Review of Sociology, 24, 291-312.
38.
Rennison, C. (2001). Violent victimization and race, 1993-1998. Washington, DC: Bureau of Justice Statistics, U.S. Department of Justice.
39.
Sheley, J.F. (1994). Drug activity and firearms possession and use by juveniles. Journal of Drug Issues, 24, 363-382.
40.
Straus, M.A., & Gelles, R.J. (1990). Physical violence in American families: Rick factors and adaptations to violence in 8,145 families. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction.
41.
Swetnam, J., & Pope, J. (2001). Gangs and gang activity in a non-metropolitan community: The perceptions of students, teachers, and police officers. Social Behavior and Personality, 29, 197-207.
42.
U.S. Census Bureau. (2000). Kentucky factsheet. Retrieved February 16, 2007, from http://factfinder.census.gov/home/saff/main.html?_lang=en
43.
Warner, B., & Leukefeld, C. (2001). Rural-urban differences in substance abuse and treatment utilization among prisoners. American Journal of Drug and Alcohol Abuse, 27, 265-280.
44.
Weeks, R., & Windom, C.S. (1998). Self-reports of early childhood victimization among incarcerated adult male felons. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 13, 346-361.
45.
Wells, L.E., & Weisheit, R.A. (2001). Gang problems in nonmetropolitan areas: A longitudinal assessment. Justice Quarterly, 18, 791-823.
