What Would They Do? Latino Church Leaders and Domestic Violence

Abstract

Understanding what Latino church leaders believe about domestic violence, and what they do when they confront it, is a key step in developing programs to help them engage in domestic violence prevention and intervention activities in their congregations. This article presents the findings from an exploratory study of 28 Latino church leaders. The study surveyed respondents’ beliefs about domestic violence and asked for their reactions to three domestic violence vignettes they might encounter. We found that study participants were willing to respond to cases of domestic violence in what we would define as constructive ways. However, some responses suggested potentially unsafe and ill-advised reactions to the vignettes. We discuss our study’s implications for practice and suggest future directions for additional research.

Keywords

domestic violence cultural contexts intervention/treatment spirituality and violence

Historically, Latinos in the United States have been less likely to seek domestic violence prevention and intervention services than members of other cultural communities (DeCasas, 2003; Salcido & Adelman, 2004). Although some reluctance may be cultural, many Latinos face significant barriers to obtaining these services. For example, undocumented Latinos often fear deportation or other potentially negative repercussions of involvement with the law (Salcido & Adelman, 2004). For those who do desire help, there are few culturally competent, accessible domestic violence services or agencies with Spanish-speaking staff (Vidal de Haymes & Kilty, 2007). Latinos residing in rural areas often find their situations compounded by social isolation, limited transportation, and scarce resources (Strickland, Welshimer, & Sarvela, 1998).

In many rural areas, the lack of Spanish-language services results in Latino church leaders functioning as social workers, career counselors, financial advisors, and so on for their congregations. Although they often take on these roles, many Latino church leaders have limited training or depth of understanding about how to do so effectively. Considering the high rates of domestic violence among Latino couples in rural settings (e.g., Murdaugh, Hunt, Sowell, & Santana, 2004), many church leaders are anxious and, at times, hesitant to act to prevent domestic violence and effectively intervene (Shannon-Lewy & Dull, 2005).

An important demographic change in the United States in recent years has been the dramatic growth in the numbers of Latinos migrating to new-arrival communities in southern states such as Georgia, North Carolina, and Arkansas (Capps, Fix, Ost, Reardon-Anderson, & Passel, 2004; Dinan, 2005; Marotta & Garcia, 2003). Many of these immigrants come from Mexico with significant financial needs, little formal education, limited use of English and a willingness to accept low-wage positions in the U.S. (Capps, 2009). These difficulties are often aggravated by their arrival in communities that are financially, socially, and structurally unprepared to meet their needs (Stamps & Bohon, 2006).

Although domestic violence is certainly an issue among Latino populations in the south, existing data on its prevalence and levels of reporting are imprecise (Burke, Oomen-Early, & Rager, 2009). Some research indicates that rates of domestic violence among Latino families in the south are significantly higher than the national average (Ellison, Trinitapoli, Anderson, & Johnson, 2007; Murdaugh et al., 2004). A recent report by the Center for Women’s Health Research at the University of North Carolina found that pregnant Latinas in their sample were more likely to report physical abuse in the past 12 months (10.3%) than any other ethnic group, nearly twice the 5.3% rate of White mothers (North Carolina Women’s Health Report Card, 2009). Murdaugh and colleagues (2004) found that 70% of Latina immigrants in rural South Carolina reported having experienced interpersonal violence or the threat of violence within the last 12 months.

It is also important to note that while Latinos have historically been Catholic, over the last two decades those who have immigrated to the United States have been increasingly drawn to evangelical and other Protestant churches (Althoff, 2007; Branas-Garza, Rossi, & Zaclicever, 2009; Espinosa, Elizondo, & Miranda, 2003). For example, 23% of Latinos in the United States are Protestant or “other Christian” and 85% of those—6.2 million people—identify themselves as evangelical. Protestant affiliation ranges from 15% of first generation immigrants to 29% of third generation Latinos (Murray, 2006).

Our research over the last few years indicates that Protestant Latino church leaders can be effective community partners to help prevent domestic violence. Seeking their views about and responses to domestic violence can also provide us with a deeper understanding of the religious and cultural nuances that precipitate violence in their congregations (Ames, Hancock, & Behnke, 2011; Hancock & Ames, 2008).

Research indicates that few clergy of any ethnicity or denomination are educated about domestic violence. In addition, they may have erroneous understandings of the dynamics of domestic violence and how to respond to it (Rotunda, Williamson, & Penfold, 2004; Shannon-Lewy & Dull, 2005; Ware, Levitt, & Bayer, 2003). There are accounts of church leaders who mistakenly counsel their parishioners to forgive their abusers, remain patient in the relationship, and call on God for support rather than seek professional support (Cooper-White, 1996; Frederick, 2004; Nason-Clark, 2004). However, little research has addressed these same beliefs and practices among Latino clergy members. The study reported here is a preliminary effort to begin filling that gap.

This study used quantitative methods to investigate church leaders’ beliefs about domestic violence and how they might react to specific domestic violence situations in their congregations. We have incorporated the results into resources and materials designed to promote and support Latino church leaders’ efforts to curb domestic violence within this underserved community.

Method

Sample and Procedure

We administered surveys to 28 Latino church lay clergy and pastors (7 women and 21 men) to measure their attitudes toward domestic violence and assess what they would do if faced with specific domestic violence scenarios in their congregations. All respondents were enrolled in a Hispanic theological education program sponsored by a conservative Baptist divinity school in the rural southeastern United States. The education program, conducted in Spanish, consisted of a series of Saturday morning sessions designed to help them preach or otherwise serve their congregations. The program was not restricted to Baptists or to pastors and was open to Latino lay leaders and clergy from any conservative Christian tradition. The coordinator of theological education program recruited volunteers to complete the survey.

The mean (SD) age of participants was 36.53 ± 10.08 years (16-54); average time living in the United States was 10.45 years (2-20 years). Eight were urban dwellers, and 20 reported living in a rural area. Seven participants reported combined family earnings under US$10,000, eight earned between US$10,000 and US$20,000, eight earned between US$20,001 and US$30,000, four earned between US$30,001 and US$40,000, and one earned more than US$40,000. Six participants were not employed outside their pastoral duties. Eleven worked in construction; 5 in factories, and 1 reported working in each of the following occupations: driver, caterer, baker, dry cleaner, nanny, and housecleaner. Seven reported having less than a high school diploma; 17 were high school graduates; and 4 had completed some college. Eight participants were single and 20 married. Twenty-two of the participants were parents, 3 of whom were single parents.

Our university Institutional Review Board approved this research, having reviewed all materials (informed consent, survey questions) in English and Spanish. Bilingual, native Spanish-speaking project staff translated all study materials, including the consent, from English to Spanish. All participants signed a Spanish-language written consent for the survey. The survey was administered in Spanish. It took participants, on average, 30 min to finish by hand, and while they were completing it bilingual staff roamed the room to answer their questions. The handwritten Spanish responses were translated by a licensed translator to English and verified via back translation by two other Spanish speakers. English translations of vignette responses were analyzed by the three authors of this study using an analytic induction process (Patton, 1990).

Measures

Demographics

Surveys requested gender, age, marital status, level of education, years living in the United States, employment situation, annual gross income, type of community, and whether they had children. Participants provided their personal information anonymously, but because increased immigration enforcement has magnified fear of authorities among Latinos, we did not request information about immigration or citizenship status.

General survey questions

The general survey questions were used with permission from an oral survey about intimate partner violence among immigrant Latinos by Moracco, Hilton, Hodges, and Frasier (2005). There were 18 questions answered on a 4-point Likert-type scale (1 = Strongly Disagree, 4 = Strongly Agree). Four items were used to assess clergy’s perceptions of causes of domestic violence. Sample items included, “When a man in a couple is violent towards the woman, it is often her fault because she provoked it” and “Most violent incidents within couples are caused by alcohol and other drugs.” Opinions about the effects of domestic violence on children were assessed via two questions: “Children, especially young ones, often aren’t aware when there is violence in the home” and “Children who see or hear violence at home may experience problems in school and later in life.”

Five items asked participants to express their opinions about the acceptability of certain relationship behaviors. Items included, “It is God’s will for couples to stay together, even if the husband is violent toward the wife” and “It is okay for a man to decide whether or not his wife or partner can work outside the home.”

A fourth subset of seven items assessed what they would say if a woman in their congregation told them that her partner was beating her. Participants indicated how much they agreed with possible responses such as “Seek help/counseling,” “Go to a shelter for victims of domestic violence,” and “Don’t allow it, defend yourself.”

Vignette questions

Three additional survey questions were presented as domestic violence vignettes. These items asked participants to write responses explaining how they would respond if faced with these situations. All three vignettes are listed below.

Vignette 1: Francisco grew up seeing his father hurt his mother. Because his mother did nothing to stop the violence, Francisco accepted this as how families dealt with disagreements. As an adult, he lashes out at his wife when he sees her doing things he doesn’t like. He has often left bruises and once caused her to break a tooth. What do you think a lay minister should do?

Vignette 2: Enrique works in a chicken-processing plant. His boss yells at him for “not working fast enough” and often makes remarks about “dirty Mexicans.” Enrique is very angry about not being respected at work. It’s different when he is at home. There he is the boss, and he often lets out his aggression and frustration on his wife. He usually just yells, but sometimes he feels so mad that he hits her or knocks her down. What do you think a lay minister should do?

Vignette 3: Before Jorge and Esmeralda came to the United States, he worked to support the family, and she stayed home and took care of their children. After they came here, Esmeralda learned to drive and insisted on getting a job. Currently she has a steady job at a hotel, while he hasn’t had much work because of the recent downturn in construction jobs. He feels really frustrated and ashamed for not being able to better support his family. After hearing a few recent comments made by neighbors, he let her have it. And she ended up in the emergency room. By hitting her he felt no better, but he didn’t know what else he could do. What do you think a lay minister should do?

Results

Analyses

The demographic and general survey question data were analyzed using descriptive statistics and single sample t tests in SPSS. All items were analyzed for significant difference from the mean of 2.5 considering the 4-point Likert-type scale. The vignette responses underwent a rigorous analytic induction process, allowing patterns, themes, and categories to emerge from the data (Patton, 1990). Each of the three coauthors read the vignette responses independently and grouped responses to each vignette by themes or categories of recurring concepts. The three authors met to discuss and refine the themes, and then independently reread and coded the vignettes a second time. The results are outlined below.

General Domestic Violence Survey Findings

Descriptive statistics and single sample t tests for all of the general survey questions are presented in Table 1. The first four questions assessed church leaders’ perceptions of the causes of domestic violence. We found that most respondents did not understand that alcohol and other drugs heighten the likelihood of abuse rather than causing it outright. Participants significantly disagreed with statements indicating that a male or female victim was at fault for the battering they experienced. Surprisingly, we found no significant difference from the mean for respondents on the question, “Women could avoid being beaten if they change their behavior.”

Table 1.

Single Sample t tests for General Domestic Violence Survey Items

			Mean difference
Item	Mean	SD	t-Value	p	df
Causes
Violence is caused by alcohol and other drugs	3.43	0.69	7.12	***	27
It’s the woman’s fault for provoking violence	1.82	0.82	4.38	***	27
It’s the man’s fault for provoking violence	1.68	0.72	6.01	***	27
Women could avoid violence by changing their behavior	2.31	0.88	1.11		27
Effects on children
Children are unaware of violence in their home	2.00	1.08	2.43		27
Children in violent homes have school and other problems	3.36	0.99	4.58	***	27
Relationship behaviors
Its gods will, women must stay in violent relationships	1.68	0.86	5.04	***	27
Man decides if a woman can work outside the home	2.04	0.84	2.93		27
Man decides who woman can see and where she can go	2.14	1.01	1.87		27
Its wrong for a man to hit his wife, even if he is angry	3.48	1.01	5.03	***	27
Its wrong for a woman to hit her husband, even if she is angry	3.29	1.12	3.72	***	27
If a woman reports being beaten I would tell her to
Work harder in the relationship.	2.50	0.96	0.00		26
Seek help/counseling.	3.46	0.84	6.09	***	25
Go to a shelter for victims of domestic violence.	2.79	0.79	1.92		27
Don’t allow it, defend yourself.	2.79	0.88	1.73		27
Divorce or live in separate households.	2.14	0.76	2.50	*	27
Turn a documented batterer in to the authorities.	2.68	0.86	1.09		27
Turn an undocumented batterer in to the authorities.	2.71	0.90	1.26		27

p < .05.***p<.001.

Two questions evaluated beliefs about the effects of domestic violence on children in affected families. Respondents indicated that they felt children in abusive homes were likely to have “problems in school and later in life,” but responses were mixed on whether children in these homes were aware of the violence.

Five questions assessed opinions about the appropriateness of certain relationship behaviors. Single sample t tests indicated respondents did not believe it was God’s will for partners to stay in a violent relationship, nor did they approve of a man or a woman hitting their partner, even in a moment of anger. Although not statistically significant, respondents generally disagreed that men should decide whether or not their partners should work outside the home or where and with whom they should go out.

Finally, seven items were used to assess how clergy would respond to a woman in their congregation telling them she was abused. Only two of the seven items were found to be significant. Most clergy thought that a woman in this situation should “seek help/counseling” and should not immediately “divorce or live in separate households.” Responses that were not statistically significant were more generally in support of going to a shelter, defending oneself, and turning in the batterer, regardless of immigration status. However, exactly half of participants felt that the woman should “work harder in the relationship.”

Findings From the Vignettes

Five themes emerged from vignette responses: counseling, offering spiritual guidance, suggesting legal action, referring to community resources, and providing job-related advice. These results are summarized below.

Counseling

The majority of respondents reported that they would provide a member of their congregation with some type of counseling. In fact, 67% of all responses (n = 56) commented on counseling with the couple. Some participants suggested “give them marriage counseling and help him with their marital relationship,” or “Advise the couple and help them save their marriage and find a solution.” Another declared, “[a minister should] contact them and constantly talk to them.” Other respondents advised “calmly discuss the problem” with the abuser. For example, a number of responses were similar to this example: “face Francisco and explain his wrongdoing to him and that he needs help; and if the minister is capable, he should provide the necessary help before something more serious happens,” or “The minister can provide the husband with therapy to help him realize that his job problems should not be taken home. Also, it’s important for him to realize that the harm he’s done can ruin his marriage.” Another women shared,

Tell Jorge not to heed what people say and to avoid it in order to prevent creating confusion in his home. Also, to help him feel capable in addition to sustaining his family so he will show consideration for his wife.

It is important to note that most experts would consider confronting the abuser or offering to counsel the couple to be potentially risky for the woman and the minister.

The topic of divorce and separation came up in five responses. Four of them proposed advising divorce depending on the severity of the situation. One example of this type of thinking was, “As a minister, [we] know that the marriage is God’s will, but when one of the couple is being beaten up and her life is in danger, divorce will be the best recommendation.” Only one participant differed in regard to the third vignette, “On top of all that suffering, a separation will even hurt the wife more and should not be considered.”

Offering spiritual guidance

The second most prevalent theme (25% of responses; n = 21) involved the ministers providing spiritual guidance or advising the use of spiritual solutions for domestic violence. These responses were sometimes similar to those categorized as counseling but were differentiated by their predominantly spiritual focus. For example, one pastor suggested, “The minister should demonstrate that God is the help that can guide them toward a better family relationship.” Another response included direct references to scripture:

I believe that the minister has to confront the husband with God’s Word, that God created woman to be a suitable help for man; therefore, he should treat her as if she were a fragile vase and he should love her as much as he loves himself.

Many comments in this category discussed the importance of whether the abuser was “a Christian” or not. For example, one man shared,

If the person accepted Christ as his savior and changed his way of living, then the minister can talk to him of the love of God, and that God wants us to love each other, and that we must always heed to his word, and let it guide us in our daily life.

Often participants reported that prayer would be an important part of their intervention. They indicated they would pray individually for the victim and abuser, pray with the victim or couple, or instruct the victim to pray for their abuser. One respondent reported, “As a minister of God, [a pastor] should guide the person [i.e., abuser] and pray that God cure his heart, because only Jesus Christ can change and cure the man.”

Suggesting legal action

Another fairly common theme (21% of responses; n = 18) was involvement of law enforcement or other legal remedies. Among these responses, the most common included reporting the offender to the police. One especially direct suggestion by a participant was “Possibly, the wife can tell the police and get him deported.” Other participants indicated the need to advise victims of their human rights and legal rights. For instance, one respondent suggested that pastors “advise the wife to take legal measures if necessary, taking into account her economic situation and if she has kids or no.”

Referring to community resources

The fourth theme involved the importance of referring church members to community resources. About 18% of responses (n = 15) revealed concern for the safety of the client in the vignette and wanted to refer her to services that could help protect her. A number of individuals commented on helping the victim find a safe house or shelter where she could be protected and have her needs met. Others focused on the need for referral to a professional counselor or therapist. For example, one pastor stated, “A minister should recommend therapy for the husband to learn how to resolve his traumas, and therapy for the wife as well to learn how to help her husband to recover and improve.”

Providing job-related advice

Because two of the vignettes had information that related to the abuser’s employment or employer, it is not surprising that some responses mentioned job-related actions. In fact, 10% of the responses (n = 8) included suggestions such as “advise him to leave his job,” or file a “discrimination lawsuit” against his employer. One response that stood out was “To recommend that Enrique change his job to avoid humiliation and to explain to him that his family is not to blame for his situation at work.”

Finally, 3% of responses indicated that some clergy did not know what to do when faced with domestic violence issues. We believe that these responses, as well as those indicating participants might intervene in ways that could be potentially dangerous for them and their congregants, speak to the need to educate Latino church leaders about how best to respond and help those in their congregations

Discussion

These results demonstrate that Latino church leaders have differing opinions about what to do when faced with domestic violence prevention and intervention activities. Most of our survey participants acknowledged the need for counseling, referring, and engaging law enforcement. We are hopeful that, if put in the situation of dealing with domestic violence, many of them would follow through by providing or engaging those resources. However, a number of responses described potentially problematic activities and opinions with cultural underpinnings that are difficult to address. For example, two fifths of the respondents agreed or strongly agreed that “women could avoid being beaten if they change their behavior” indicating that many of these church leaders think that stopping domestic violence is the woman’s responsibility. The belief that women must try harder and change their behavior points to the need to educate these church leaders who work on the front lines with many families in need.

Another area of concern was that most of our respondents reported that domestic violence was “caused by” alcohol or other drugs. This commonly held belief is supported by the fact that substance abuse and violence are often seen in the same household. It mistakenly diverts responsibility for the violence from the abusers to the substances they ingest. Church leaders who wish to assist families experiencing domestic violence would benefit from understanding that, while some abusers may need treatment for substance abuse, substance abuse does not cause domestic violence.

Finally, many of the church leaders in our survey (32%) were unaware that domestic violence has a real impact on children in the home. Considering the value Latinos place on family, we believe that knowing more about domestic violence’s harmful effects on children could motivate church leaders to take a more active role in preventing and addressing domestic violence in their congregations.

These items and others suggest that the conservative nature of these church leaders may lead them to justify some violence or other deleterious behaviors to avoid divorce. Survey responses indicated that most church leaders would not recommend divorce or separation as an option for a woman reporting domestic violence (it was the least often suggested item in that part of the questionnaire). In fact, when asked directly about what they would do if faced with a situation of domestic violence (using vignettes) only four of the church leaders suggested that divorce or separation might be necessary for victims of domestic violence. This confirms our previous research that Latino clergy’s religious beliefs do not normally allow for divorce although a minority of church leaders recognize that, in some situations, separation might be necessary (Ames, Hancock, & Behnke, 2011).

Responses to the vignettes in this study also offer insight into the courses of action that church leaders might take when faced with cases of domestic violence. Our results suggest that Latino church leaders want to help families in their congregations constructively confront domestic violence. Respondents were generally most willing to counsel with a victim and make referrals if faced with issues of domestic violence, both ideal roles for church leaders. However, some of their proposed interventions point to a need for training or education opportunities to learn ways to help victims and abusers without endangering themselves or those they are trying to help. For example, many of these church leaders’ suggestions were risky and could lead to deleterious outcomes for both the clergy and the victim (e.g., bringing the couples together for counseling, confronting the abuser). Other church leaders emphasized a more religious bent (e.g., “God cure his heart”) which while well-intended often led to recommendations that, if put in practice, could lead to inaction (e.g., praying with the victim, telling the victim to read the bible) or precarious/dangerous situations.

Implications for Practice

The purpose of our study was to gather data to guide us in developing a domestic violence prevention and intervention education program for Latino church leaders. Our results are consistent with other recent research indicating that Latino church leaders are receptive to being involved in domestic violence prevention and intervention (Ames, Hancock, & Behnke, 2011; Hancock, 2007; Hancock & Ames, 2008; Hancock & Siu, 2008). We believe our results suggest some directions for those interested in working with this population.

Church leaders are trusted by their congregations and can effectively reach underserved Spanish-speaking families who seldom seek out or utilize domestic violence services on their own. Partnerships between culturally competent human services professionals and Latino church leaders would also be an excellent avenue for providing members of Latino congregations with preventative education about domestic violence. Such partnerships could offer the support church leaders might need to carry out domestic violence prevention and intervention activities within their congregations. Below we discuss some of the content and approaches we believe would be helpful in preparing Latino church leaders to address domestic violence in their congregations.

Respondents’ willingness to offer counseling and to make referrals are strengths that an educational program could build on. Latino church leaders, many of whom have limited formal education, cannot be expected to act as professional therapists. They can, however, talk with their congregation members about personal problems including domestic violence. It would be beneficial to provide them with accurate information about domestic violence and about talking with women and men struggling with that issue. For example, it is critical for any suggestion about counseling to include information about how to talk with victims and perpetrators in ways that do not compromise the safety of the woman or the pastor. Pastors who see domestic violence as a problem, and who are willing to refer families to resources outside the church, need information about local resources that could provide assistance and services to those families.

Church leaders should have information about the harmful effects witnessing domestic violence has on both male and female children. This might aid them in working with children and parents and help them to see intervention as a means of preventing the cycle of violence from being passed from one generation to the next. Church leaders should also understand the role alcohol plays in domestic violence; that it may increase the risk but that being drunk is not a cause of nor an excuse for domestic abuse.

Our respondents’ reluctance to advise women to leave their abusers may have cultural and religious origins. Despite the ethnic, cultural, and economic differences among Latinos, one key cultural value is the sanctity of family. Maintaining the integrity of families is also central to many conservative religious denominations. Any church-based program to address domestic violence must respect and incorporate these values while also providing accurate information about how to help women and their children stay as safe as possible if they choose not to leave their abusers. The fact that nearly half of our participants felt that the woman should “work harder in the relationship” may also have cultural or religious underpinnings. Whatever the origin of these opinions, they indicate a need for some education on the dynamics of domestic violence that includes the concept that the abuser, not the victim, is responsible for the violence.

Finally, any program targeting clergy should honor and incorporate their role in the spiritual lives of the families they serve. While prayer is not likely to be an intervention recommended by domestic violence professionals, it may be comforting to individuals and should be supported as an adjunct to other more worldly interventions a pastor might offer.

One outcome of the study reported here has been the development of a training program for church leaders entitled Iluminando el Camino para un Futuro Mejor (Lighting the Way to a Better Future). The Iluminando program includes materials and resources to be used by church leaders and human services professionals in the community assisting them to develop local programming to reduce domestic violence among Latino families. These free resources can be found online at www.NCfamilies.com/spanish/iluminando

Like all research, this study has limitations. It focuses on a small convenience sample in a rural area in the southeastern United States. We caution against generalizing all of our findings to urban populations or other geographical regions. Nonetheless, in the absence of other studies on this topic, we hope it may offer guidance for future research that uses larger, randomized samples from different regions of the United States. Such research would create a more nuanced understanding of these leaders’ views and provide additional guidance to those interested in involving Latino churches in domestic violence prevention and intervention. Even with these obvious limitations, we believe the responses and insights of these church leaders are too important to ignore and will be helpful to social workers, domestic violence program developers, and others wishing to engage Latino populations in domestic violence prevention and intervention. Because church leaders are considered shepherds for their congregations and have an obligation to look out for their church members’ well-being, church-based prevention and intervention activities could be very effective and powerful ways to tame the tide of domestic violence in these communities.

Footnotes

Acknowledgements

The authors wish to thank Juan Ortiz, Andrea Kazemzadeh, and Malissa de Flores-Streett, for their invaluable assistance with this project.

The authors declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

The authors disclosed receipt of the following financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article: Funding for this project was provided by the Z. Smith Reynolds Foundation and a grant from the Office of Extension, Engagement, and Economic Development at North Carolina State University.

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