Factors Associated With Battered Filipino Women’s Decision to Stay in or Leave an Abusive Relationship

Abstract

There is a dearth of research on battered Filipino women’s stay or leave decision-making process. The present study interviewed 40 battered women in the Philippines to explore factors associated with their decisions to stay or leave their husbands or partners. Results revealed that (a) battered women’s decision to stay was associated with intrapersonal and interpersonal factors such as personality characteristics, lack of personal resources, absence of social support, presence of children, length of relationship, and sociocultural factors and (b) battered women’s decision to leave their abusive partners was associated with factors such as personality characteristics, personal resources, social support, nature of abuse, and spousal factors. Implications for research and practice were discussed.

Keywords

battered women abuse decision to leave or to stay

In the past few decades, violence against women (VAW) or intimate partner violence (IPV) was overlooked by society at large due to misconceptions that whatever happened behind closed door was the couple’s private business (Felix & Paz-Ingente, 2003). In the Philippines, advocacy to end VAW grew in 1986, but the enactment of most of the laws to protect Filipino women only happened in the 1990s (Women Working Together to Stop Violence Against Women, 2009). Among all of these moves, the enactment of the “Anti-Violence Against Women and Their Children Act of 2004” (Republic Act No. [RA] 9262) is considered the most significant. This act not only serves to protect women from all forms of abuse, but it also defines crime against women by a spouse or partner as a public crime. Despite the existence of these laws, prevalent data indicate that at least one woman in every three has been beaten, forced into sex, or otherwise abused in her lifetime (Palacio, 2004). The World Health Organization’s (WHO) multicountry study on women’s health and domestic VAW estimated that between 15% and 71% of women aged 15 to 49 have been abused (Garcia-Moreno, Jansen, Ellsberg, Heis, & Watts, 2005). In 2011, the Philippine National Police (PNP) reported a 14.3% decrease of cases of VAW from the 2010 report. However, the average violation of RA 9262 still ranked first at 49% among the different VAW categories since its implementation in 2004. The increase of the reported cases under RA 9262 of 218 cases in 2004 to 9,021 cases in 2011 implies an effective implementation of the law and campaign against VAW (Philippine Commission on Women, 2012).

Although a reputable body of research has been published on the prevalence and incidence of VAW (Garcia-Moreno et al., 2005; Philippine Commission on Women, 2012), few studies were conducted on battered Filipino women’s stay–leave decision-making process. This study addresses this gap in the literature by exploring factors associated with battered Filipino women’s decision to stay in or leave an abusive relationship.

IPV

IPV has been broadly defined as any form of abuse perpetrated against a person by an intimate spouse or partner (Campbell, 2002). A growing body of research has revealed the profound impact of IPV on women’s physical and mental health (Estrellado, 2010; Pico-Alfonso, Echeburúa, & Martinez, 2008). While the magnitude of the problem seems evident based on statistics alone, the severity of the problem becomes even more pronounced when the fatal consequences of the abuse are considered. For example, studies have shown a positive relationship between IPV and mental health disorder in women including anxiety, low self-esteem, and depression (Estrellado, 2010; Estrellado & Salazar-Clemeña, 2007, 2010; Follingstad, 2009; Pico-Alfonso et al., 2008; Shoultz, Magnussen, Manzano, Arias, & Spencer, 2010). Perhaps the most telling of all are reports that many women are killed by their spouse or partner (Felson & Lane, 2010; Parrot & Cummings, 2006).

Contrary to belief that women stayed in an abusive relationship because she has no misgiving about the abuse, research indicated that battered women do attempt to leave abusive relationships (P. K. Anderson & Saunders, 2003; Lindgren & Renck, 2008). Similarly, in a recent study, Crisostomo, Cruz, Cruz, and Cruz (2012) found that battered Filipina women do leave abusive relationships and more importantly, they were able to break the cycle of abuse when they realized they have been victimized. However, there are contradictory findings with regard to how and when women leave an abusive relationship. For example, some studies have found that women leave permanently when they are abused (Ballantine, 2004; Lindgren & Renck, 2008). Other studies found that abused women made several attempts to leave before finally ending the relationships (D. J. Anderson, 2003; Ballantine, 2004; Hodges & Cabanilla, 2011; Lacey, 2010).

Previous research suggest that women’s personality, family background, and social support are important contributing factors in women’s decision to stay in or leave an abusive relationship. For instance, battered women have been found to display low self-esteem, weak ego, unassertiveness, and emotional dependency (Estrellado, 2010; Estrellado & Salazar-Clemeña, 2007, 2010; Lindgren & Renck, 2008; Pico-Alfonso et al., 2008) that are suggestive of a weak personality. Access to family, social, and financial support is also associated with women’s decision to stay in or leave an abusive relationship (P. K. Anderson & Saunders, 2003; Crisostomo et al., 2012; Hodges & Cabanilla, 2011; Kim & Gray, 2008; Lacey, 2010; Rodriguez, 2011; Sabina & Tindale, 2008; Shoultz et al., 2010). One tipping point that may influence battered women in their stay or leave decision is the presence of children. The findings in this area are rather contradictory. For instance, Hutchison and Hirschel (2001) revealed that the presence of children was not associated with battered women’s decision-making process. In contrast, some studies found that children facilitated and prevented battered women from leaving an abusive relationship (Lindgren & Renck, 2008; Rhodes, Cerulli, Dichter, Kothari, & Barg, 2010).

A number of studies have found that the length of relationship and severity of the abuse also contributed to women’s decision to stay or leave. For example, the longer a woman has been in an abusive relationship, the more difficult it is for her to leave (Rusbult & Martz, 1995). In terms of the severity of abuse, D. J. Anderson (2003) reported that attempts to end abusive relationships place women at greater risk of escalating abuse. In contrast, other studies found that women with severe histories of physical injuries may be more likely to leave their partners (P. K. Anderson & Saunders, 2003; Koepsell, Kernic, & Holt, 2006; Sabina & Tindale, 2008), but frequent experience with psychological abuse was found to have greater impact on women’s decision to leave (Lacey, 2010; Lerner & Kennedy, 2000; Sabina & Tindale, 2008; Shoultz et al., 2010).

The importance of many of these studies is irrefutable. However, most of them have been conducted in the United States from a predominantly individualistic perspective (P. K. Anderson & Saunders, 2003; Hutchison & Hirschel, 2001; Kim & Gray, 2008; Koepsell et al., 2006; Rhodes et al., 2010; Sabina & Tindale, 2008; Shoultz et al., 2010). Therefore, they may not fully account for Filipino women’s decision to stay in or leave an abusive relationship.

In the Philippines, conformity, domestication, and familial responsibilities are valued highly and taught to Filipino girls from a young age (Crisostomo et al., 2012; Felix & Paz-Ingente, 2003). Filipino women are socialized to become the tagasalo (rescuer), to be mapagtiis (tolerant) and mapagtimpi (self-controlled). These cultural concepts of femininity in the Philippines (Felix & Paz-Ingente, 2003; Shoultz et al., 2010) may be subtly different to the ideology and image of what constitutes individualistic American women. As a result, the factors associated with Filipino women’s decision to stay or leave an abusive relationship may be different to that of American women. In line with this, we were motivated to examine the intrapersonal and interpersonal factors that contributed to women’s decision-making process. Intrapersonal factors involved factors occurring within the person which included personality traits and personal resources of the battered women while interpersonal factors are factors outside the person which involved social support, presence of children, characteristics of abuse, sociocultural issues, and perceived spousal concerns. The aim of the present study is therefore to explore battered Filipino women’s decision to stay in or leave an abusive relationship in the Philippines context. Specifically, the study aims to answer this research question:

Research question 1: What are the intrapersonal and interpersonal factors that contribute to battered Filipino women’s decision to stay in or leave an abusive relationship.

Method

A qualitative approach was undertaken and an in-depth interview was conducted to explore the factors associated with battered women’s decision to stay in or leave an abusive relationship. Interview was considered the most appropriate method of data collection because it facilitated Filipino women’s ability to freely express their personal reasons on a highly sensitive issue (e.g., staying or leaving an abusive relationship). Hence, this approach enabled an exploration from an insider’s perspective of the topic under study (Creswell, 2003).

Participants

The participants were 40 battered Filipino women selected using non-random, purposive sampling method. They were selected on the recommendation of the social workers and community-based centers’ representatives in Manila. Twenty participants (N = 20) who stayed with their abusive partners were recruited from community based centers in Metro Manila while the other 20 women who left their abusive partner were recruited from Women Crisis Center (WCC) and from the Department of Social Welfare and Development (DSWD). The average age of the women who stayed was 44.8 years and 34.75 years for the women who left. Difference in age between the two groups was found to be significant (p = .001). Those who continued their relationship have stayed with their abusive partners for an average of 18.75 and for those who left, the average duration was 7.65. The results clearly indicated a significant difference in the length relationship (p = .000). Significant difference was also found in two sociodemographic variables, namely, occupation (p = .036) and number of children (p = .028). However, no significant difference (p = .523) was found in the educational attainment of women who left and stayed in an abusive relationships. Table 1 shows the sociodemographic information of women who stayed in and left an abusive relationship.

Table 1.

Demographic Profile of the Battered Women Who Stayed in and Left an Abusive Relationship.

	Left (n = 20)	Stayed (n = 20)	Total (n = 40)	p value
Age	34.75 ± 8.87	44.8 ± 8.06	39.78 ± 9.79	.001
Educational attainment
Elementary/high school	10 (50%)	13 (65%)	23 (57.5%)	.523
Elementary	0 (0%)	2 (10%)	2 (5%)
High school	10 (50%)	11 (55%)	21 (52.5%)
College	10 (50%)	7 (35%)	17 (42.5%)
Occupation
Employed/self-employed	14 (70%)	4 (20%)	18 (45%)	.036
Employed	12 (60%)	1 (5%)	13 (65%)
Self-employed	2 (10%)	3 (15%)	5 (12.5%)
Unemployed/housewife	6 (30%)	16 (80%)	22 (55%)
Unemployed	6 (30%)	0 (0%)	6 (4.0%)
Housewife	0 (0%)	16 (80%)	16 (40%)
Years of marriage	7.65 ± 5.91	18.75 ± 7.91	13.2 ± 8.9	.000
No of children	3.3 ± 2.23	4.8 ± 2.53	4.05 ± 2.47	.028

Procedure

The interviews took place during the months of February until May 2011. At the start of the interview, participants were given a brief introduction to the study and an assurance of confidentiality as well as anonymity. All participants were asked to complete a personal information sheet which collected participants’ demographic information. For the interview, participants were asked about the reasons why they decided to stay or leave their abusive relationships. The focus of interview was on the intrapersonal (e.g., What are your personality characteristics that contribute to your decision to stay/leave your abusive partner) and interpersonal (e.g., How did the sociocultural factors influence your decision to stay/leave your abusive partner) factors (Please refer to the Appendix for the interview guide question). The questions were framed in an open-ended format which allows for follow-up questions to aid ambiguous responses. All interviews were conducted in Filipino and were recorded by digital voice recording with the participants’ consent. Interviews lasted between 60 and 90 min. Interviews were transcribed verbatim and translated into English by an assistant professor who has an MA in English.

Data Analysis

Content analysis was utilized for data analysis. Content analysis is a technique that is used to systematically describe and investigate qualitative responses. The researcher conducted a meticulous analysis of the transcripts. Content analysis was conducted manually using a multistep procedure which involved the identification and refinement of content categories. The first step involved a thorough reading of the transcripts. The second step included the identification and listing of themes that were later formed into major categories. The third step of the analysis aimed to narrow down the categories by combining categories that overlap or duplicate one another. Through this iterative process, saturation was achieved and the conceptual categories of interpersonal as well as intrapersonal factors associated with participants’ decision to stay in or leave an abusive relationship were derived. Two independent raters not associated with the study were recruited to help code 50% of the themes. The raters are professionals who have adequate knowledge in clinical and counseling psychology and have worked with battered women. The interrater reliability correlation score was .92, which implied that there is significant concordance between the two raters. Disagreements were discussed until they were resolved.

Results

Emergent themes suggested that intrapersonal and interpersonal factors were associated with women’s decision to leave or stay with their partners.

Factors Associated With Staying in an Abusive Relationship

Intrapersonal factors

Personality characteristics

Dependency on their partners was very evident in the responses of the women who stayed. They have difficulty making their own decisions and have been used to giving in to what their partners tell them to do. One woman recounted, “I cannot make decisions in life. My husband makes all the decisions. I got used to being just his follower. I am always dependent on him.”

Emotional attachment to their partner was a strong influencing factor for the women to stay. The women described how at first they experienced their partners as loving, thoughtful, and attentive. They could not let go of the positive feelings they have for their partner despite the abuse. The strong emotional attachment to abusive partner was clearly described by one of the women: “They said I am crazy because I was abused and yet I still love him. I cannot leave him because I love him still.”

It was also apparent that the women exhibited martyr-like traits such as being self-sacrificing, submissive, and passive. These traits made them more vulnerable to abuse because they tended to remain quiet, tolerant, and sacrificing in spite of the pain they experienced. One woman described this in the following terms: “I would just cry in our room. I will bear all the pain.”

Personal resources

The lack of personal resources was experienced by 16 women who chose to stay with their abusive partners. Many of these women were housewives without financial independence. Some of them attempted to leave but decided to stay because they felt unequipped to establish an independent living arrangement. One woman shared, “I attempted to leave my husband but I know I cannot do it. I only finished high school. I thought I would have difficulty getting a job. I decided to stay and tolerate the abuse rather than become hungry.”

Interpersonal factors

Social support

The availability of social support represents an important factor in women’s decision to stay with their abusive partners. Out of the 20 women who stayed, 16 complained of the lack of support from families, friends, or the government. One woman reported, “You know I tried to leave and ask support from my family and friends. I failed. It seems they were afraid to help me and I did not have a choice but to return to my husband.”

Presence of children

Having children was another contributing factor for staying. Some of them left but decided to return for the sake of the children. Other women expressed the need to bear the pain to maintain a complete family. To quote one woman, “I cannot throw him away because of my children. That is why here I am, bearing the pain. I will bear this because I do not want my children to lose their father.”

Characteristic of the abuse

Another contributing factor for staying was the length of relationship. Most of the women felt that they have invested too much to give up on their relationship. One woman expressed that her 34 years of being with her husband could still bear more years ahead: “We are already old, and maybe my long years of patience will still be able to bear more years ahead.”

Sociocultural factors

Traditional sex-role expectations were reflected in the women’s decision to stay. Sixteen women believed that it is their duty to stay and to keep the family together. These sociocultural factors are institutionalized in the Filipino culture and ingrained in many of these women’s and their family’s philosophy. For example, 10 women who left were forced by their own parents to return to their abusive partners. They were also unable to access community agencies’ help because much of their conflict was perceived as a “private matter.” The following words are indicators of this finding:

I went to my parents because I could not think of anyone who could help me. They knew about the hardships that I am going through, but I was advised to return to my husband. I was also told to pray for my husband to change.

Factors Associated With Leaving an Abusive Relationship

Intrapersonal factors

Personality characteristics

Women who decided to leave displayed a more independent personality. For example, all of the women reported that their determination to leave and their being brave were two personality traits that contributed to their decision to end the abusive relationship. They displayed their confidence and determination by doing what they considered is right to do. For example, one woman reported that

I thought to myself, I have sacrificed enough for our relationship and I have limitations. When I said that I was going to leave him I did that. I am one who is determined to do what I know is right.

Personal resources

The women who left reported that personal resources were an important contributing factor in their decision. They knew they can stand on their own given the resources they have. One woman commented: “I have work. I am earning a living. It was a difficult decision to leave my husband but at least I do not have to beg for help from him.”

Social support

The results of interview revealed that the women received considerable support and help from others to be able to make a firm decision to leave their partners, through family, friends, and women’s social group. One woman disclosed,

I could not have left my husband without the help of the Women’s Crisis Center (WCC). My children and I were referred to WCC by my friends. We need to leave him because he was threatening. WCC also helped me in filing a case against my husband.

Presence of children

The women who left focused much on protecting their children from the violence they witness or directed on them. The women’s concern about how their children were affected by violence was a strong contributory factor that made them decide to leave their partner. The following words were self-explanatory on this regard:

If he does not hurt me, he turns to our children. They are the ones he hurts, whipping them, pouncing them on the nape. My children are very young to be beaten. But he did not care doing to my children what he also does to me. It was more painful seeing my children getting (physically) hurt.

Characteristics of the abuse

All the women who left reported that the nature of abuse triggered their decision to end the abusive relationship. Nineteen women felt they could no longer take the verbal harassment and degrading remarks of their partner. The following retrospectives testify to the depth to which one woman felt the need to leave her abusive partner because of the verbal abuse she experienced: “He often says a lot of things to my face but what I really could not take was when he told me that I was worthless and that I was just trash.”

Most women who left cited that their partners’ womanizing influenced their decision to leave. In spite of the abuse they experienced at the hands of their partners, it was still a devastating blow to discover that their partners have been unfaithful to them. One of the women described her feelings in the following words: “I had experienced lots of sufferings with my husband. But for me the most painful was his womanizing. That is why when he womanized, I told myself that I could not forgive him. I left him.”

Financial abuse was another factor that contributed to the women’s decision to leave. Given the lack or inadequate financial support of their partners, they believed it was useless to continue with the relationship. To quote one of the women,

When it comes to money, he gives me some. But he curses a lot each time he gives me money. It’s like I’m good for nothing but extending my cupped hands to ask for money. What reason do I have to continue my relationship with him?

The escalating physical abuse also made 10 women decide to leave their partners. As the abuse escalated, the women felt increasingly drained of energy and threatened. It may start with a little misunderstanding that would result to heated arguments that led to inflicting injuries on women. As one of the women put it,

There are instances when he suddenly gets angry after little arguments. Then he hits our wall and throws everything he lays his hands on. I am afraid that will also make me his punching bag. I want to hide but I cannot move because I freeze in fear. I would feel so tired and drained after.

Another woman was subjected to an intense violent experience that she was afraid for her life and that of her baby. She knew no other choice but to flee. Her agony was revealed in the following words:

The most intense that he did was when he burned all the things in my bag and all papers he could get from me. He burned them on my face, then spat on me and kicked me as well. Then he pulled my hair and dragged me again. I told myself that when I survive that night, I will really go away. I need to save my life and my baby.

Spousal substance abuse and emotional instability

Spousal substance abuse was found to explain women’s decision to leave. The interview results indicated that abuse in most of the relationships was alcohol or drug related. The women believed that it was difficult for their partners to change; the only option they have was to leave. One woman expressed that “When he is under the influence of drugs, he does not know what he is doing. He grasped me by the shoulder, pulled my hair, and banged my head on the wall. I don’t think he would still change.”

Likewise, the women believed that their respective partners manifested varying degrees of disturbance in their behavior and actions. Ten women shared that their partners were crazy, abnormal, or paranoid and described how this insight made them decide to leave. One woman described a situation: “When he visits me in the condominium unit, he is paranoid. He would ransack the garbage bin, rack the folded clothes, and made up stories about me chatting with a man, he was crazy.”

Discussion

The study aimed to examine the factors related to stay–leave decision making of battered Filipino women. Our results indicated that battered Filipino women experienced a number of intrapersonal and interpersonal factors in their decision-making processes.

Intrapersonal Factors

The findings indicated that the psychological make-up of battered women influenced their decision to remain or to terminate an abusive relationship. Results from the interviews suggested that women who left were more emotionally independent than women who stayed. Women who stayed also perceived that they are tolerant and have self-sacrificing personality traits. These self-sacrificing traits are common among Filipino women because they have been brought up to be mapagtiis (tolerant) and mapagtimpi (self-controlled; Lapuz, 1978). Previous research on abuse of women found that women’s perception of themselves became distorted leading to a deterioration of self-esteem (Estrellado, 2010; Estrellado & Salazar-Clemeña, 2007, 2010; Lindgren & Renck, 2008) and diminished self-efficacy (Carlson, 2005). Consequently, a false sense of dependency developed among abused women making them think they can only survive if they stay with their abusers. Similarly, results from this study confirm previous findings that battered women stay because of their love for their partners (Ben-Ari, Winstok, & Eisikovits, 2003). The above concepts are particularly salient for Filipino women whose ideas of love and family encompass self-sacrifice and tolerance.

The study results also revealed that financial independence and being educated were important contributing factor in women’s decision to leave an abusive relationship. Demographic profile of the women who left showed that they have economic resources to meet their own needs and those of their children compared with the women who stayed. This is consistent with previous studies which found that financial independence, job skill, and education were factors that could contribute to women leaving an abusive relationship (P. K. Anderson & Saunders, 2003; Kim & Gray, 2008; Lacey, 2010; Rodriguez, 2011; Sabina & Tindale, 2008).

Interpersonal Factors

The findings of the study showed that social support is an important factor in the decision-making process of Filipino battered women. For women who decided to end the abusive relationship, social support garnered from their family, friends, and women organizations assisted them in their decision making. Previous research in this area also attested to the importance of social support for abused women (P. K. Anderson & Saunders, 2003; Crisostomo et al., 2012; Hodges & Cabanilla, 2011; Lacey, 2010; Rodriguez, 2011; Sabina & Tindale, 2008; Shoultz et al., 2010). Similarly, the presence of supportive and encouraging persons in their lives, and the help and services from government and non-government organizations seemed to facilitate the process of terminating an abusive relationship (Hodges & Cabanilla, 2011; Lacey, 2010; Shoultz et al., 2010) for our sample of abused women.

Results from the study confirm findings of Rhodes et al. (2010) that the presence of children played an integral role in the women’s decision-making process. For women who left and who stayed, their main concern rest on the welfare of their children, abide in different ways. That is, Filipino women who stayed felt that their staying will give their children a traditional family environment to grow up in while women who left felt that leaving means a safer environment for which they can raise their children (Hutchison & Hirschel, 2001; Lundy & Grossman, 2005). It is significant to note that the women who stayed had more children compared with the women who left. Having more children could have compelled them stay with their abusive partners.

We found in our study that the length of the partner relationship contributed to women’s decision to stay. The longer women stayed in an abusive relationship, the less likelihood they are to leave it. Based on the sociodemographic profile of the women, there was a significant difference between the years of marriage or length of relationship between the women who stayed in and left their abusive partners. Those who stayed had an average of 18.75 years while 7.65 years for those who left. This confirmed findings from other studies (P. K. Anderson & Saunders, 2003; Rusbult & Martz, 1995) that have examined the linkages between battered women’s stay/leave decision and length of relationship.

Studies have also found that women were more likely to end an abusive relationship due to the frequency and severity of physical abuse (P. K. Anderson & Saunders, 2003; Koepsell et al., 2006; Sabina & Tindale, 2008). Consistent with previous research, our study found that Filipino women who are psychologically abused also tended to leave an abusive relationship (Lacey, 2010; Lerner & Kennedy, 2000; Sabina & Tindale, 2008; Shoultz et al., 2010). Most of the women who left shared that they were able to tolerate the physical abuse but not the verbal abuse because their partners’ humiliating words slowly ate away their dignity as a human being.

Sociocultural factors contributed to women’s decision-making process. In the Philippines, the foremost factor that influences women not to leave is the role of women in their family and their concept of a family (Crisostomo et al., 2012; Felix & Paz-Ingente, 2003; Shoultz et al., 2010). The Philippines is predominantly a Catholic country and the sanctity of marriage is an inviolable social institution (Family Code of the Philippines). As part of this family code, disruption of the family and the adverse effects of break up on the family as well as children are strongly frowned upon. In addition, traditional sex role expectations are one of the sociocultural issues that contributed to their decision to stay. Female subordination and unequal gender relations are clearly manifested in the Filipino familial set up and gender socialization (Crisostomo et al., 2012; Felix & Paz-Ingente, 2003; Shoultz et al., 2010). Filipino woman, being socialized as a tagasalo (catcher or rescuer), is willing to sacrifice for her family (Carandang, 1987). Being mapagtiis (enduring), yielding, and responsible are significant elements in the culture concept of femininity in the Philippines (Crisostomo et al., 2012; Felix & Paz-Ingente, 2003; Shoultz et al., 2010). A woman has little choice but to remain the submissive, self-effacing wife and mother (Feliciano, 1994) even at the expense of her psychological well-being.

Guerrero (1999) cited three vices of Filipino men, commonly known by the acronym ABS or alak (wine), babae (woman), and sugal (gambling), to be associated with IPV. However, there is a fourth vice that our study found, that of drug abuse. In the Philippines, studies on VAW suggested that alcohol is involved in most cases of IPV (Hindin & Adair, 2002). Most participants complained that their partners hit them when they were drunk or under the influence of drugs. Personality disturbance of their partners was another major concern that made women leave their abusive relationship. Emotional instability of male spouse was another consideration. Dutton (1998) for instance found that male abuser have low self-esteem, suffer from depression, controlling, and exhibited traits of pathological jealousy. This is consistent with our findings where women reported that their partners manifested excessive jealousy, disturbance in behavior, and interpersonal skill deficits that worsened the marital situation.

Implications for Counseling Practice

There are a number of counseling implications based on the results of the present study. It was found that women who stayed in their abusive relationship had to struggle for financial and social support. Counselors could identify shelter homes or institutional services that are free of charge to house women who left abusive relationships. It is also advisable for counselor to highlight to women the importance of being financially independent. In addition, counselors could facilitate women to gain important skills that would benefit their career opportunities. This will provide them chances to become financially independent.

It is important that counselor raise the issue of children and the detrimental effect violence can have on children. Studies have shown that children who went through family violence lived in constant fear and they bring this fear into their own intimate relationships when they become adults (Adams, 2006).

While every woman deserves to be in a happy intimate relationship and to live a life free of violence, it is important for counselors not to cast blame on women who decided to stay. Many of these women may have simply perceived that their life with an abuser has more pros than cons (Lerner & Kennedy, 2000). Therefore, counselor should be careful not to perceive these women as passive or inactive individuals. Rather, these women may utilize active coping strategies to stop the abuse (Estrellado & Salazar-Clemeña, 2007, 2010). Therefore, it may be important for counselors to provide useful coping strategies and focus on interventions that will empower women to take control of their lives.

We must acknowledge some of the limitations of our study. For example, the study is limited by its small sample and the purposive sampling of participants. Given this, we cannot assume that findings from this study may be transferrable to a larger population of battered women who decided to stay in or leave an abusive relationship. Additional research is needed to establish the prevalence of the findings among advocates. However, we noted that many previous qualitative studies tend to have small sample size (Crisostomo et al., 2012; Khan & Watson, 2005; Lindgren & Renck, 2008; Shoultz et al., 2010; Wettersten et al., 2004). Nevertheless, additional research is needed to establish the prevalence of the findings among advocates.

Despite these limitations, this research has integrated existing knowledge of IPV with a cross-cultural perspective. Inclusion of Filipino women or culture may broaden our understanding of battered women’s decision-making processes. Specifically, it will provide important insights into the similarities and differences in the decision-making process of battered women.

Footnotes

Appendix

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The author(s) disclosed receipt of the following financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article: This research was funded by a grant from the University Research Coordinating Office (URCO) at the De La Salle University (Project No. 28 F U 309).

Author Biographies

Alicia F. Estrellado is an assistant professor at the Counseling and Educational Psychology Department of the De La Salle University. She holds a PhD in Counseling Psychology, major in Clinical Counseling, from the De La Salle University.

Jennifer (M. I.) Loh received her PhD from the University of Queensland, Australia, and is a senior lecturer of psychology at Edith Cowan University.

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