Emotional Regulation and Revictimization in Women’s Intimate Relationships

Abstract

The aim of the current study was to test whether women’s emotional regulation (ER) capacity moderates the relationship between childhood abuse and both adult intimate partner violence (IPV) and relationship quality. Female graduate students (N = 425), either married or in a long-term cohabitation, participated in an Internet-based survey. Structural equation model (SEM) multiple-group analysis was conducted to estimate whether the link between childhood abuse and marital outcomes varied across high and low levels of ER. The data showed that childhood abuse was associated with higher levels of IPV and lower marital quality. A high level of ER was found to buffer the association between child abuse and IPV. Among women with a low level of ER, childhood abuse had a stronger negative effect on relationship quality than for women with a high level of ER. ER is a protective factor against revictimization in intimate relationships.

Keywords

emotional regulation revictimization child abuse marital quality resilience

Introduction

Childhood abuse is a risk factor for many negative outcomes later in life, including victimization in adult relationships. In the past decade, research has focused primarily on sexual revictimization (Arta, 2002; Breitenbecher, 2001; Classen, Palesh, & Aggarwal, 2005; Messman-Moore & Long, 2000; Roodman & Clum, 2001); however, revictimization also exists in the forms of emotional and physical violence (Alexander, 2009; Lang, Stein, Kennedy, & Foy, 2004; Obasaju, Palin, Jacobs, Anderson, & Kaslow, 2009). For example, compared with women with no childhood history of physical or emotional abuse, those who were formerly maltreated are five times more likely to experience adult emotional and physical intimate partner violence (IPV; Dietrich, 2007; Gobin & Freyd, 2009). The negative impact of child abuse on adult intimate relationships goes beyond the increased risk for IPV; maltreatment has been linked also with other difficulties in romantic relationships (Davis & Petretic-Jackson, 2000) such as disruptions in intimacy (DiLillo et al., 2009; Kim, Talbot, & Cicchetti, 2009), sexual dysfunction (Mullen, Martin, Anderson, Romans, & Herbinson, 1996), interpersonal conflict (Kim et al., 2009), and a higher divorce rate (Colman & Widom, 2004; Whisman, 2006). Given these consequences, it is not surprising that women with an early history of maltreatment report lower marital satisfaction (DiLillo et al., 2009; Whisman, 2006).

Empirical reviews have pointed out that extant literature has mainly focused on investigating the negative outcomes of child abuse such as revictimization and low marital quality, while paying scant attention to the resilience of women with an abuse history (Macy, 2008; Noll, 2005). Indeed, data show that some women succeed in avoiding many of the negative effects of childhood abuse on intimate relationships (Davis & Petretic-Jackson, 2000; Rutter, Quinton, & Hill, 1990), including subsequent victimization (Hyman & Williams, 2001). Consequently, it has been asserted that more data are needed on protective factors for positive marital outcomes despite child abuse experience (Macy, 2008; Noll, 2005). Therefore, the goal of this study was to investigate protective factors against revictimization and decreased marital quality originating from childhood abuse.

To date, there is a lack of theoretical or conceptual rationale to explain how some women with child abuse histories successfully navigate adult intimate partner relationships whereas others continue to suffer abuse. Several scholars have pointed to the role of emotional regulation (ER) as a potential intervening factor in the link between childhood abuse and later interpersonal outcomes (Chu, 1992; Cole & Putnam, 1992; Van der Kolk, 1989). ER refers to the actions a person takes to influence what emotions he experiences and how they are experienced and expressed (Taylor, Bagby, & Parker, 1997). Polusny and Follette (1995) suggested that some abused children use avoidant ER strategies, such as dissociation, to regulate unpleasant emotions associated with abusive experiences. Although these strategies are adaptive in abusive relationships in childhood, they may later lead to revictimization. Using avoidant strategies to regulate negative emotions evoked by violence keeps these emotions out of awareness, whereas recognizing negative emotions is fundamental for identifying and responding effectively to dangerous situations, such as violence (Chu, 1992). Thus, avoidant ER strategies may increase the likelihood of revictimization. In addition, romantic relationships can provoke memories and emotions associated with childhood abuse, but using avoidant strategies to regulate these emotions may result in restricted affectionate behaviors and interfere with establishing intimacy (Polusny & Follette, 1995). Consistent with this explanation, a large body of evidence has confirmed the association between revictimization and both emotional avoidant strategies (Alexander, 2009; DePrince, 2005; Filipas & Ullman, 2006; Sandberg, Matorin, & Lynn, 1999) and post-traumatic ER problems (Arta, 2002; Dietrich, 2007; Sandberg et al., 1999). Ineffective ER was also found to be associated with decreased relationship quality (Carstensen, Gottman, & Levenson, 1995; Davila, Bradbury, & Finchman, 1998).

The possibility that abuse disrupts ER which in turn increases vulnerability to revictimization is well documented, but this explanation does not account for the many abuse victims who go on to maintain healthy relationships. Current literature provides evidence that ER might moderate the abuse–revictimization relationship—that is, those who have effective ER might be able to avoid subsequent negative intimate relationship outcomes, whereas survivors with ineffective ER are vulnerable to repeated victimization. Among other protective factors, ER has been identified as a potential resource that may promote resilience in traumatized children (Masten & Coatsworth, 1998) and in women with abuse history (Cole & Putnam, 1992). ER is a core developmental task of childhood, and it is multi-determined by genetic, biological, and environmental factors (Taylor et al., 1997). Despite the background of a troubled childhood, some individuals are able to preserve adequate ER skills and exhibit satisfying intimate relationships similar to those individuals without such a history (Paley, Cox, Burchinal, & Payne, 1999). Effective ER may also offer an advantage with regard to marital quality (Yuan, McCarthy, Holley, & Levenson, 2010), especially in times of tension, because ER reduces mental arousal and helps couples successfully resolve conflicts (Carstensen et al., 1995).

To conclude, the current literature suggests that child abuse is associated with adult IPV and decreased relationship quality, and that ER might function as a moderator in the abuse–revictimization relationship. Therefore, this study aimed to investigate whether ER moderates the association between child abuse and both IPV and intimate relationship quality. Specifically we hypothesized that (a) child abuse would be associated with increased IPV and with decreased marital quality and (b) the association between child abuse and both IPV and intimate relationship quality would be lower among women with higher levels of ER than among women with lower levels of ER.

Method

Participants

We sampled 1,266 female graduate students from various departments throughout five universities in Israel. To be eligible, women had to have a minimum age of 25 and have been either married or in cohabitation with a romantic partner for at least 1 year. To avoid language barriers and culture-related biases, such as the arranged marriages or family-guided mate selection found in some Arab families, we included only Jewish women who were native Hebrew speakers.

In the first stage, participants completed a short background questionnaire to assess eligibility. Eligible women (N = 698) who confirmed willingness to participate in the study and provided contact information received an e-mail, and those who confirmed their interest in participation completed a FormLogix® internet-based questionnaire. Contact information was stored separately. The study was approved by the Institutional Review Board (IRB) at the authors’ university. In total, 502 women filled out the questionnaire and 77 questionnaires were excluded because of incompletion or because they did not meet eligibility criteria. The analyses are therefore based on data from the 425 participants who completed the entire form.

Participants ranged in age from 25 to 62 years, with a median age of 34 years and an average age of 35.96 years (SD = 7.84). The majority of participants was born in Israel (80.7%), married (77.1%), had children (57.4%), and considered themselves to be secular (76.2%). The majority of participants (68.7%) rated their family economic status as “fair” on a scale ranging from “very low” to “very high.”

Measures

Childhood abuse

Childhood abuse was measured by the Childhood Trauma Questionnaire (CTQ; Bernstein et al., 1994). This instrument assesses the types and frequency of childhood abuse (physical, sexual, and emotional) and neglect (emotional and physical). Only the abuse scales were used in the current study: emotional abuse (e.g., “people in my family said hurtful or insulting things to me”); physical abuse (e.g., “I was punished with a belt, a board, or some other hard objects”); and sexual abuse (e.g., “someone tried to touch me in a sexual way or tried to make me touch them”). Each item was rated on a 5-point Likert-type scale with response options ranging from 1 (never true) to 5 (very often true). The CTQ demonstrates good internal consistency, test–retest reliability, and convergent validity (Bernstein et al., 1994). In the current study, internal consistency reliabilities (Cronbach’s α) were .82 for emotional and physical abuse and .73 for sexual abuse.

IPV

IPV was measured by the Revised Conflict Tactics Scale (CTS-2; Straus, Hamby, Boney-McCoy, & Sugarman, 1996). We used 23 items included in three subscales to evaluate IPV in the past 12 months: psychological aggression (e.g., “my partner called me fat or ugly”), physical assault (e.g., “my partner hit me with something that could hurt”), and sexual coercion (e.g., “my partner used force to make me have sex”). Each item was rated on a 5-point scale ranging from 1 (never) to 5 (more than 10 times). This scale was validated using discriminate and content validity (Straus et al., 1996) and is considered to be reliable, with alpha coefficients ranging from .79 to .95. In the current study, the scale reliabilities (Cronbach’s α) were .80, .81, and .64 for psychological, physical, and sexual violence, respectively. The mean score for each subscale was used, with higher scores reflecting more violence in the relationship.

ER

ER was measured by the Mood Repair subscale from the Trait Meta-Mood Scale (TMMS; Salovey, Mayer, Goldman, Turvey, & Palfai, 1995). This six-item scale evaluates participants’ tendencies to regulate their emotions to cope with hard feelings (e.g., “When I become upset, I remind myself of all the pleasures in life”). Items were measured with a 5-point Likert-type scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). The mean score was used, with a higher score reflecting a higher level of ER. The TMMS-Mood Repair subscale has shown good internal consistency with Cronbach’s alpha .82 (Salovey et al., 1995); a similar consistency was found in the present study (α = .85).

Relationship quality

Relationship quality was measured using two instruments. Marital satisfaction was measured by an instrument based on the semantic differential (Osgood, Suci, & Tannenbaum, 1957). It asks participants to evaluate their relationship on a 7-point scale with 15 pairs of opposing adjectives (e.g., satisfied–dissatisfied; unpleasant–pleasant). This instrument has been widely used in relationship research (cf. Davila et al., 1998; McNulty & Russell, 2010). In the current study, Cronbach’s α was .95. Marital quality was measured by the Marital Quality Scale (MQS-I; Lavee, 1995). The MQS-I assesses the respondents’ perceived quality of marriage across 10 dimensions of the relationship such as communication, conflict resolution, sexuality, and parenting. Each item is assigned two extreme response categories, and respondents are asked to check a number on a scale ranging between these responses (e.g., “How much you and your partner share feelings and experiences with each other?” [1 = we don’t share our experiences and feelings with each other to 7 = we share everything with each other). In the present study, Cronbach’s α of this scale was .77. The mean score of each scale was used, with higher score reflecting higher level of marital quality.

Results

Participant responses indicated that during childhood, 11.8% of our sample experienced emotional abuse, 6.9% experienced physical abuse, and 10.1% experienced sexual abuse. Emotional violence (i.e., victimization) in adult intimate relationships was reported by 50.1% of the participants, whereas physical and sexual violence were reported by 8.5% and 8.0%, respectively.

Descriptive statistics (means, standard deviations, and correlations between the study variables) are presented in Table 1. The data in Table 1 show significant correlations among and between forms of childhood abuse (Variables 1, 2, 3) and IPV (Variables 4, 5, 6). Emotional and physical IPV are significantly correlated with all three forms of childhood abuse, whereas sexual IPV is associated with sexual abuse in childhood. The two measures of relationship quality are negatively associated with emotional abuse in childhood and with two of the three forms of violence in the relationship. Finally, ER is associated neither with childhood abuse nor with adult intimate violence, suggesting that it does not mediate the relationship between childhood abuse and IPV. Finally, the data in Table 1 show that a higher level of ER is associated with a higher level of relationship quality.

Table 1.

Descriptive Statistics and Correlations Between the Research Variables (N = 425).

Variable	% Victims	M	SD	1	2	3	4	5	6	7	8
1. Emotional abuse	11.8	1.23	0.72	—
2. Physical abuse	6.9	1.14	0.57	.708**	—
3. Sexual abuse	10.1	1.15	0.50	.213**	.208**	—
4. Emotional IPV	50.1	0.49	0.56	.123**	.134**	.097*	—
5. Physical IPV	8.5	0.02	0.12	.125**	.133**	.135**	.426**	—
6. Sexual IPV	8.0	0.04	0.15	.017	−.004	.125**	.174**	.002	—
7. Marital quality		5.58	0.82	−.108*	−.114*	−.067	−.418**	−.119*	−.128**	—
8. Marital satisfaction		5.93	1.00	−.125**	−.072	−.071	−.472**	−.180**	−.089	.736**	—
9. Emotional regulation		3.86	0.76	.047	−.007	−.001	−.075	−.038	−.008	.169**	.241**

Note. Variables 1 to 3 refer to experiences during childhood. IPV = intimate partner violence.

p < .05. **p < .01.

Association Between Childhood Abuse and Relationship Outcomes: The Moderating Effect of ER

To examine the effect of childhood abuse on adult relationships, we first estimated a structural equation model (SEM) of the relationship between childhood abuse, IPV, and relationship quality with data from the whole sample (N = 425). In this model, shown in Figure 1, an exogenous latent variable, Child Abuse, is defined by three indicators: sexual, physical, and emotional abuse. Because these measures were highly skewed in the direction of no abuse, each variable was coded as a dichotomy (0 = absence of abuse, 1 = presence of abuse). IPV is also defined by three indicators: sexual, physical, and emotional violence. Relationship Quality is defined by two indicators: the measures of marital quality (MQS-I) and marital satisfaction.

Figure 1.

Relationship between child abuse and marital outcomes: Structural equation model (N = 425).

Analysis of the model indicated a good fit to the data: χ²(df = 17) = 23.47, p = .14; goodness-of-fit index (GFI) = 0.987; adjusted goodness-of-fit index (AGFI) = 0.972; comparative fit index (CFI) = 0.992; and root mean square error approximation (RMSEA) = .030. The analysis showed that childhood abuse was linked significantly with higher levels of IPV (β = .13, p < .01) and with lower relationship quality (β = −.17, p < .01). In addition, lower relationship quality was associated with greater severity of IPV (β = −.46, p < .01).

To test whether ER moderated the relationship between child abuse and marital outcomes (IPV and relationship quality), we used SEM multiple-group analysis. Specifically, we examined whether estimates of model parameters (i.e., path coefficients) varied between high and low levels of ER (Kline, 2005). High and low ER groups were defined by the upper (n = 112) and lower (n = 116) quartiles on this measure.

Two nested models were estimated: (a) a model in which the parameters for both groups were freely estimated and (b) a model in which the parameters for both groups, high and low ER, were forced to equality. The moderating effect was tested in two ways: first, by examining the size of the structural model parameter estimates and their statistical significance when the models for the two groups are estimated freely (i.e., the unconstrained model), and second, by examining the difference in the goodness-of-fit of the two models relative to the change in the degrees of freedom (Δχ2/Δdf) when the constrained model was compared with the unconstrained one. A statistically significant change in goodness of fit indicates an overall difference between the groups (Kline, 2005).

The multiple-group analysis of the unconstrained model indicated reasonably good fit indices: GFI = 0.944; AGFI = 0.884; CFI = 0.954; RMSEA = .054. A significant goodness-of-fit difference, Δχ²(5) = 16.22, p < 0.05, was found in comparing the two nested models (i.e., with and without parameter constraint), indicating that the associations between child abuse and adult relationship outcomes varied across levels of ER.

The parameter estimates (Table 2) for women with high and low levels of ER show that a high level of ER buffers the effect of child abuse on IPV; the effect of childhood abuse on IPV was significantly stronger for women with low ER (β = .374, p < .01) than it was for women with high ER (β = −.022, p > .50). In addition, childhood abuse was more strongly and negatively associated with marital quality for women with a low level of ER (β = −.162, p < .10) as compared with those with a high level of ER (β = −.061, p > .50).

Table 2.

Multiple-Group Analysis: Model Estimates for Women With High and Low Levels of ER.

Path	High ER (n = 112)			Low ER (n = 116)
Path	B	SE	β	B	SE	β
Structural model
Abuse → Violence	−0.044	.246	−.022	0.637**	.206	.374
Abuse → Quality	−0.145	.295	−.061	−0.443^†	.270	−.162
Violence ↔ Quality	−0.222**	.051	−.641	−0.162**	.044	−.524
Measurement model
Child abuse
Emotional abuse	1.000	—	.750	1.000	—	.865
Physical abuse	0.598**	.152	.628	0.819**	.123	.879
Sexual abuse	0.406**	.139	.356	0.440**	.114	.379
Marital violence
Emotional violence	1.000	—	.910	1.000	—	.789
Physical violence	0.057**	.009	.719	0.157**	.039	.579
Sexual violence	0.091**	.030	.313	0.055	.039	.155
Relationship quality
Marital quality	1.000	—	.770	1.000	—	.905
Marital satisfaction	1.460**	.216	.928	1.207**	.199	.841

Note. ER = emotional regulation.

†

p < .10. *p < .05. **p < .01.

Next we conducted a multivariate analysis of variance for the two outcome variables, IPV and relationship quality. For this analysis, a combined measure of IPV was created by a factor score of the three components of partner violence (physical, emotional, and sexual) and the measure of relationship quality was created by a factor score of the two respective measures (marital quality and marital satisfaction). Childhood abuse was coded 1 if any type of abuse was experienced, 0 if the respondent had not reported any abuse in childhood. The analysis indicated that IPV was significantly associated with a history of childhood abuse, F(1, 224) = 7.51, p < .01, with high versus low levels of ER, F(1, 224) = 11.15, p < .01, and with an interaction effect of childhood abuse and ER, F(1, 224) = 9.35, p < .01. Relationship quality was associated significantly only with levels of ER, F(1, 224) = 17.21, p < .01.

To illustrate these findings better, we plotted the mean values of IPV and relationship quality for the abuse versus no abuse groups and the high versus low ER groups (see Figure 2). The graphs show how, among women without abuse history, ER was not related to IPV, whereas among women with abuse history, the prevalence of IPV was higher for those with low ER than it was for those with high ER. As for relationship quality, women with high ER reported a higher level of relationship quality than those with low ER both for those who had experienced childhood abuse and those who had not.

Figure 2.

Intimate partner violence and relationship quality among women with high and low levels of emotion regulation who have or have not experienced childhood abuse.

Discussion

The present study indicates that exposure to maltreatment early in life is associated with greater IPV and reduced relationship quality in adulthood. These findings are consistent with theories (Chu, 1992; Polusny & Follette, 1995; Van der Kolk, 1989) and research (Classen et al., 2005; Messman-Moore & Long, 2003; Roodman & Clum, 2001) regarding the adverse effects of childhood abuse on intimate relationships in adulthood.

The main goal of the current study was to examine whether ER moderates the relationship between child abuse and marital outcomes. The results suggest that ER may be a protective factor against revictimization in intimate relationships: An association between child abuse and IPV was found among women with low ER but not among women with high ER. Additional analyses revealed that the relation between ER and IPV is more complex: The interaction effect between childhood abuse and ER in predicting IPV (see Figure 2) indicates that ER protects against IPV only for women with a history of child abuse, whereas woman without abuse history were not at risk for IPV regardless of ER levels.

The theoretical framework (Chu, 1992; Cole & Putnam, 1992; Polusny & Follette, 1995; Van der Kolk, 1989) suggests that avoidant ER strategies are linked with revictimization. The theory also highlights that avoidant ER strategies in adulthood are developed in childhood as a defense mechanism against traumatic experiences. Ineffective ER strategy may result in revictimization. Our study found that effective ER can protect against revictimization; however, ER was not associated with childhood abuse in adult women. Although it could be true that our participants used avoidant strategies during times of abuse in early childhood, our data cannot speak to this. Our findings, therefore, may support the idea that traumatized individuals are able to preserve or recover personal skills, such as ER, despite childhood adversity (Paley et al., 1999). ER is a product of bio-psycho-social systems and processes (Taylor et al., 1997), and it is important to further learn the mechanisms through which some women manage to preserve or recover effective ER.

While this study supports previous results regarding the link between ER and revictimization (Alexander, 2009; DePrince, 2005; Filipas & Ullman, 2006), it also expands the scope of the current scientific literature, which has focused mainly on risk factors for sexual revictimization. The contribution of the current study is in demonstrating an alternative process of resilience, in which high ER operates as a protective factor against the recurrence of all forms of violence in adult intimate relationships.

Our expectation that high ER would protect women against marital dissatisfaction in the context of childhood abuse was not supported. Polusny and Follette (1995) argued that avoidant ER strategies account for marital difficulties in abused victims, but the current investigation indicates that ER does not have a differential contribution for women with past abuse experience and instead enhances relationship quality regardless of abuse history. These results are consistent with previous data (Carstensen et al., 1995; Yuan et al., 2010) showing that higher ER is linked with greater relationship quality. In addition, our findings support previous studies showing a link between poor marital quality and IPV (Stith, Green, Smith, & Ward, 2008; Testa, VanZile-Tamsen, & Livingston, 2005). However, the direction of causality between IPV and marital quality is still unclear (Stith et al., 2008).

Several limitations should be noted regarding the present study. First, the retrospective cross-sectional design precludes any assertion about causal relations between childhood abuse and marital outcomes. Second, the data are based on self-report measures, which may be biased by selective memory of childhood abuse histories (Arta, 2002). Also, it is possible that some of the non-response cases or incomplete data constitute a selection bias with unknown implications for the findings. Longitudinal studies that incorporate self-report as well as objective data (e.g., records of child maltreatment) may bolster our understanding of the consequences of childhood abuse for intimate relationships.

Finally, we acknowledge that the highly educated population in this study may limit generalizability. For example, a representative Israeli sample (Eisikovits, Winstok, & Fishman, 2004) presented higher rates of physical violence than our predominantly middle-class Jewish and veteran Israeli sample. However, the prevalence of psychological violence was similar in both samples. In addition, although the frequency of child abuse in the current study resembles community-based studies (e.g., Baker & Maiorino, 2010), other studies reported higher rates (Filipas & Ullman, 2006; Tjaden & Thoennes, 1998). It is not clear whether these differences are a consequence of response bias or of different measurements and/or populations (Cicchetti & Toth, 2005). Similarly, the small effect size found in the current study between child abuse and IPV is on par with other community samples (Testa et al., 2005), but is lower than clinical samples (Obasaju et al., 2009). Future studies of community and clinical samples are needed to determine generalizability.

Clinical Implications

The present study suggests that ER is a protective factor against revictimization and may provide an empirical ground for prevention programs for abused children or for interventions with revictimized women. Intervention programs may include cognitive-behavioral approaches to enhance ER, such as Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction, a well-established meditation program, and Dialectical Behavioral Therapy (Linehan, 1993). Mindfulness was found effective in improving ER and may help to prevent revictimization by bolstering cognitive processes that lead to adaptive conscious decisions based on diverse needs and feelings (Ryan & Deci, 2000). To date, the literature lacks evidence-based data concerning the effectiveness of clinical programs used to prevent revictimization (Classen et al., 2005). More controlled clinical studies are needed to establish the effectiveness of ER training programs for preventing revictimization.

Footnotes

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The author(s) disclosed receipt of the following financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article: This research was funded in part by the Haruv Institute, Jerusalem.

Author Biographies

Osnat Zamir received her PhD degree from the University of Haifa, Israel. Currently she is a post-doctoral research associate at the Department of Family Social Science, University of Minnesota. Her main fields of interest include marital dynamics and interactions, resilience and protective factors for violence in intimate relationships, and implementation of prevention programs using observational data and longitudinal methods.

Yoav Lavee is a professor of family studies and director of the Center for Research and Study of the Family at the School of Social Work, University of Haifa. He received his PhD degree in family studies from the University of Minnesota. His main fields of interests include stress processes in couples and families, assessment and correlates of marital quality, and family theory and methodology.

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