Relation Between Sexual Assault and Negative Affective Conditions in Female College Students

Abstract

The present study examined dispositional hope as a potential mediator of the association between sexual assault and negative affective conditions, namely, depressive and anxious symptoms in a sample of 223 female college students. Results from conducting bootstrapped mediation analyses indicated that hope agency, but not hope pathways, mediated the link between sexual assault victimization and negative affective conditions in females. Importantly, the associations of sexual assault with both depressive and anxious symptoms remained highly significant independent of hope. Some implications of the present findings are discussed.

Keywords

female college students sexual assault hope depressive symptoms anxious symptoms

Sexual assault is a widespread public health issue that affects thousands of people every year (Planty, Langton, Krebs, Berzofsky, & Smiley-McDonald, 2013). Broadly defined, sexual assault refers to any sexual act that takes place without the victim’s consent (e.g., unwanted sexual touching, forcible penetration; Polusny & Arbisi, 2006). Compared with men, it is important to note that women are more frequently the victims of sexual assault (Tjaden & Thoennes, 2006). Indeed, 1 in 5 women, compared with 1 in 71 men, report having been a victim of rape at some point in their lifetime (Black et al., 2011). In particular, within the adult population, female college students have been consistently found to be at high risk for being a victim of sexual assault (e.g., Gross, Winslett, Roberts, & Gohm, 2006; Palmer, McMahon, Rounsaville, & Ball, 2010). For example, Krebs, Lindquist, Warner, Fisher, and Martin (2009) found that 20% of female college students in their study reported experiencing some type of sexual assault (e.g., drug-facilitated sexual assault, physically forced sexual assault) since entering college. Furthermore, findings have shown that experiences of sexual assault are consistently and positively related to psychological maladjustment, including sexual dysfunction (e.g., Elliott, Mok, & Briere, 2004; Perilloux, Duntley, & Buss, 2012), substance abuse (e.g., Kilpatrick, Resnick, Ruggiero, Conoscenti, & McCauley, 2007), and suicide risk (e.g., Bryan, McNaugton-Cassill, Osman, & Hernandez, 2013; Ullman & Najdowski, 2009). Thus, female college students who are victims of sexual assault are potentially at risk for a wide range of negative psychological outcomes.

Among the pattern of associations found involving sexual assault and maladjustment, one of the most reliable relationships to emerge from past findings is the link between sexual assault and negative affective conditions, namely, depressive and anxious symptoms. Findings from numerous adult studies have indicated a reliable positive association between sexual assault and depressive symptoms (e.g., Au, Dickstein, Comer, Salters-Pedneault, & Litz, 2013; Combs, Jordan, & Smith, 2013), and between sexual assault and anxious symptoms (e.g., Hassija & Gray, 2013; Monroe et al., 2005; Tambling, 2012). These patterns have also been found in studies of female college students. For example, Harris and Valentiner (2002) found that experience of attempted or completed sexual assault was significantly and positively correlated with depressive symptoms among female college students. What is not clear is an understanding of possible mechanisms that may help account for the reliable positive association between sexual assault and negative affective conditions in adults, including in female college students. To date, a wide range of variables have been examined as potential mediators of the link between sexual assault and maladjustment in adult females, from trauma-related symptoms (Transill, Edwards, Kearns, Gidycz, & Calhoun, 2012) to avoidant coping behaviors (Bedard-Gilligan, Cronce, Lehavot, Blayney, & Kaysen, 2014).

One variable that has been found to be an important proximal determinant of psychological adjustment is dispositional hope. According to Snyder et al. (1991), dispositional hope represents a cognitive process that is predicated on two distinguishable dimensions, namely, hope agency, the belief that one can reach his/her goals, and hope pathways, the belief that one can generate and plan for a multitude of ways to attain these goals (Snyder et al., 1991). In that regard, dispositional hope is conceptually predicated on elements of other important explanatory variables (e.g., self-efficacy, personal control), but these variables do not sufficiently determine dispositional hope (Snyder et al., 1991). According to Snyder’s (1994, 2002) hope theory, high dispositional hope is believed to be positively associated with positive outcomes, whereas low dispositional hope is believed to be positively associated with negative outcomes. Indeed, findings from studies on dispositional hope conducted over the past two decades have generally supported these contentions (see Cheavens & Ritschel, 2014, for a review).

Within Snyder’s (1994, 2002) dispositional hope theory, adverse life events (e.g., sexual assault, loss of a loved one, discrimination) are linked to the reduction or loss of hope by blocking or limiting one’s ability to engage in goal-oriented thinking, which in turn is expected to result in negative outcomes for the individual. Indeed, consistent with this view, negative life events have been found to be associated with lower dispositional hope (e.g., Visser, Loess, Jeglic, & Hirsch, 2013), and lower dispositional hope has in turn been found to be positively associated with stronger negative affective conditions in adults (Snyder, 1995, 2002), including depressive symptoms (e.g., Chang, 2003; Chang, Yu, & Hirsch, 2013; Kwon, 2000) and anxious symptoms (e.g., Arnau, Rosen, Finch, Rhudy, & Fortunato, 2007; Snyder et al., 1991). To date, no study has directly tested for the role of dispositional hope as a potential mediator of the link between general or specific adverse life events and negative affective conditions in adults. Accordingly, given the reliable association found between sexual assault victimization and negative affective conditions in females, it would be useful to determine if that association may be accounted for by the loss of hope (see Figure 1).

Figure 1.

A model of hope as a hypothesized mediator of the association between sexual assault and negative affect.

Purpose of the Present Study

Given the concerns and possibilities noted above, we conducted the present study to (a) examine the relations between sexual assault, dispositional hope, and negative affective conditions (viz., depressive & anxious symptoms) in female college students; and (2) determine if dispositional hope serves as a mediator between sexual assault and negative affective conditions.

Consistent with past research findings (e.g., Au et al., 2013; Monroe et al., 2005), we expected sexual assault to be positively associated with negative affective conditions in students. Specifically, we expected sexual victimization to be positively associated with depressive and anxious symptoms in female college students. In contrast, consistent with Snyder’s (1995, 2002) hope theory, we expected dispositional hope to be associated with lower depressive and lower anxious symptoms in female students. However, consistent with past findings (e.g., Visser et al., 2013) linking adverse life events with lower dispositional hope, we expected to find sexual victimization to be associated with lower dispositional hope in female students.

Lastly, given Snyder’s (1995, 2002) contention that adverse life events limit or block one’s ability to think in a goal-oriented manner, we tested a mediation model in which the hypothesized impact of sexual assault victimization on depressive and anxious symptoms was accounted for by decreases in hope. Because both hope agency and pathways are considered proximal determinants of adjustment in Snyder’s (1995, 2002) model, we expected to find evidence for the role of both hope agency and pathways as mediators of the link involving sexual assault with both depressive and anxious symptoms in female students.

Method

Participants

This study recruited 230 female college students from a university in the Southeast United States. Participants’ ages ranged from 18 to 53 years, with a mean age of 21.32 years (SD = 4.32 years). Of this initial sample, seven participants failed to complete all measures. Accordingly, the present study is based on the 223 participants who completed all study measures. The breakdown of participants’ year in school was as follows: 35.7% freshman, 23.5% sophomore, 21.7% junior, 17.4% senior. The racial/ethnic breakdown of the participants was 88.3% White, 5.7% Black, 2.2% Asian, and 1.7% Hispanic (2.2% did not report race).

Measures

Sexual assault

To assess for sexual assault, we used four individual self-report questions from the National College Health Assessment Scale (American College Health Association, 2007) that have been validated against those from other measures of sexual assault (e.g., The National College Women Sexual Victimization Study; Fisher, Cullen, & Turner, 2000). The four items assessed for various dimensions of sexual assault, namely, verbal threat (“Within the last school year, have you experienced verbal threats for sex against your will?”), unwanted sexual touching (“Within the last school year, have you experienced sexual touching against your will?”), attempted sexual penetration (“Within the last school year, have you experienced attempted penetration against your will?”), and completed sexual penetration (“Within the last school year, have you experienced sexual penetration against your will?”). Participants responded to each question with either “yes” or “no.” If participants responded “yes” to any of the aforementioned questions, they were coded as having experienced sexual assault. In the present female sample, 31 participants indicated that they had experienced some form of sexual victimization.

Hope

To assess for dispositional hope, we used the Hope Scale (HS; Snyder et al., 1991). The HS is a 12-item self-report measure of dispositional hope with four items that measure hope agency (e.g., “I energetically pursue my goals”), four items that measure hope pathways (e.g., “I can think of many ways to get out of a jam”), and four filler items. Respondents are asked to indicate how accurately each item described them using an 8-point Likert-type scale, ranging from 1 (definitely false) to 8 (definitely true). Evidence for the construct validity of the HS has been reported in Snyder et al. (1991). Higher scores on the HS indicate greater dispositional hope.

Depressive symptoms

To assess for depressive symptoms, we used the Beck Depression Inventory-II (BDI-II; Beck, Steer, Ball, & Ranieri, 1996). The BDI-II is a 21-item self-report measure of depressive symptomatology. Respondents are asked to indicate the extent to which they have experienced in the past 2 weeks (e.g., “I am sad all the time”) specific depressive symptoms across a 4-point Likert-type scale, ranging from 0 (absence) to 3 (severe presence). Evidence for the construct validity of the BDI-II has been reported in Beck et al. (1996). Higher scores on the BDI-II indicate greater depressive symptomatology.

Anxious symptoms

Anxious symptoms were measured using the Beck Anxiety Inventory (BAI; Beck, Epstein, Brown, & Steer, 1988). The BAI is a 21-item self-report measure consisting of common symptoms of anxiety (e.g., “Fear of the worst happening”). Respondents are asked to rate the extent to which they have experienced each symptom over the past week using a 4-point Likert-type scale ranging from 0 (not at all) to 3 (severely). Research has shown the BAI to have construct validity with other measures of anxious symptoms (see Beck et al., 1988). Higher scores on the BAI indicate greater anxious symptoms.

Procedure

Approval for the study was obtained from the Institutional Review Board prior to data collection. Participants taking general psychology courses (e.g., Introduction to Psychology) were recruited at a regional university in the Southeast United States and received either course-required credit or extra credit upon completion of the survey. All participants were provided with written informed consent, which indicated that all data would be kept strictly confidential. After signing the statement of informed consent, participants were provided with the survey. Upon completion, all participants were debriefed and provided telephone numbers for local mental health services.

Results

Correlations, means, and SDs for all study measures are presented in Table 1. As the table shows, all of the study variables were significantly correlated in the expected manner. Sexual assault in females was found to be positively associated with depressive and anxious symptoms (rs = .31 and .39, respectively, p < .001). Furthermore, sexual assault was negatively associated with hope agency and pathways (rs = −.18 and −.17, p < .05). Hope agency was found to be negatively associated with depressive and anxious symptoms (rs = −.55 and −.40, p < .001, respectively). Likewise, hope pathways was found to be negatively associated with depressive and anxious symptoms (rs = −.42 and −.30, p < .001, respectively).

Table 1.

Correlations Between Measures of Sexual Assault, Hope, and Depressive and Anxious Symptoms.

Measures	1	2	3	4	5
1. Sexual assault	—
2. Hope agency	−.18*	—
3. Hope pathways	−.17*	.77***	—
4. Depressive symptoms	.31***	−.55***	−.42***	—
5. Anxious symptoms	.39***	−.40***	−.30***	.61***	—
Range	0-1	4-32	4-32	0-63	0-52
M	0.13	24.77	23.77	11.23	14.69
SD	0.34	5.09	5.16	11.71	11.73

Note. N = 223.

p < .05. ***p < .001.

Next, we tested two multiple mediation models, namely, the associations of sexual assault with depressive and anxious symptoms in females, as mediated by hope agency and pathways. Tests for mediation are typically based on ordinary least squares regression analysis (Baron & Kenny, 1986; Hayes, 2013). However, to overcome any problems with low power, we used Preacher and Hayes’ (2008) bootstrapping methods for detecting total indirect effects and specific indirect effects when multiple mediators are involved in the prediction model. Bootstrapping with 10,000 resamples was used to obtain parameter estimates for both total and specific indirect effects. If the 95% bias-corrected confidence interval does not contain a zero, then the indirect effect is considered statistically significant and mediation is demonstrated (Preacher & Hayes, 2008).

Results of computing parameter estimates for detecting total and specific indirect effects on the relation between sexual assault and depressive symptoms as mediated by hope agency and pathways are presented in Table 2. As the table shows, the total indirect effect and specific indirect effect of hope agency, but not hope pathways, were found to be significant (p < .05). As shown in Figure 2, hope agency was a significant mediator such that sexual assault was negatively related to hope agency (B = −2.69), which in turn was negatively related to depressive symptoms (B = −1.24). In contrast, hope pathways was not a significant mediator. Specifically, hope pathways was not significantly related to depressive symptoms. The result of conducting a pairwise contrast of indirect effects revealed that the specific indirect effect of hope agency was significantly larger (p < .05) than that of hope pathways, as its confidence interval did not contain a zero. The overall model involving sexual assault and dispositional hope was found to account for a large (f ² = .30) 34.8% of the variance in depressive symptoms, F(3, 315) = 39.04, p < .001.

Table 2.

Indirect Effects of Sexual Assault on Depressive Symptoms Through Hope Agency and Pathways.

Mediator	Parameter Estimate	SE	95% BC CI
Mediator	Parameter Estimate	SE	Lower	Upper
Depressive symptoms
Total	3.14	1.42	0.49	6.09*
Hope agency	3.33	1.66	0.70	7.30*
Hope pathways	−0.19	0.72	−1.71	1.30
C1	3.51	2.15	0.27	8.99*

Note. N = 223. C1 = pairwise contrast hope agency and hope pathways; BC CI = bias-corrected confidence interval.

p < .05.

Figure 2.

Estimated multiple mediation model linking sexual assault with depressive symptoms through hope agency and pathways (N = 223).

Lastly, results of computing parameter estimates for detecting total and specific indirect effects on the relation between sexual assault and anxious symptoms as mediated by hope agency and pathways are presented in Table 3. As the table shows, the total indirect effect and specific indirect effect of hope agency, but not hope pathways, were found to be significant (p < .05). As shown in Figure 3, hope agency was a significant mediator such that sexual assault was negatively related to hope agency (B = −2.62), which in turn was negatively related to anxious symptoms (B = −.91). In contrast, hope pathways was not a significant mediator. Specifically, hope pathways was not significantly related to anxious symptoms. The result of conducting a pairwise contrast of indirect effects revealed that the specific indirect effect of hope agency was significantly larger (p < .05) than that of hope pathways, as its confidence interval did not contain a zero. The overall model involving sexual assault and dispositional hope was found to account for a large (f² = .30) 25.9% of the variance in anxious symptoms, F(3, 315) = 39.315, p < .001. Taken together, these multiple mediation results consistently indicate that hope agency, but not hope pathways, mediates the association between sexual assault and negative affective conditions.

Table 3.

Indirect Effects of Sexual Assault on Anxious Symptoms Through Hope Agency and Pathways.

Mediator	Parameter Estimate	SE	95% BC CI
Mediator	Parameter Estimate	SE	Lower	Upper
Anxiety
Total	1.99	1.05	0.23	4.23*
Hope agency	2.37	1.25	0.42	5.33*
Hope pathways	−0.38	0.61	−1.96	0.63
C1	2.75	1.67	0.28	7.07*

Note. N = 223. C1 = pairwise contrast hope agency and hope pathways; BC CI = bias-corrected confidence interval.

p < .05.

Figure 3.

Estimated multiple mediation model linking sexual assault with anxious symptoms through hope agency and pathways (N = 223).

Discussion

Given the prevalence of sexual assault victimization in female college student populations (e.g., Palmer et al., 2010), we conducted the present study to expand on previous research pointing to a reliable positive association between sexual assault and negative affective conditions, namely, depressive and anxious symptoms in college students (e.g., Au et al., 2013; Monroe et al., 2005). Consistent with findings from these studies, we found that sexual assault in female students was positively associated with both depressive and anxious symptoms. Alternatively, consistent with Snyder’s (1994) dispositional hope theory, and with past findings (e.g., Arnau et al., 2007; Snyder et al., 1991), both hope agency and pathways were found to be associated with lower depressive and anxious symptoms in female students. Moreover, in support of Snyder’s (1995, 2002) contention that adverse life events, including sexual assault victimization, may block or reduce dispositional hope, we found sexual assault to be negatively associated with hope in female students. However, given that we only focused one specific type of adverse life event, it would be important in future studies to determine if experience or exposure to other types of negative events (e.g., death of loved one, discrimination; Banks, Singleton, & Kohn-Wood, 2008) are comparably associated with lower dispositional hope in adults.

Hope Agency, But Not Hope Pathways, as a Mediator of Sexual Assault and Negative Affective Conditions in Female College Students

As discussed earlier, although a positive association between sexual assault and negative affective conditions has been reliably identified in past studies, little work has been done to examine for variables that may account for this important relationship. Based on Snyder’s (1994, 2002) contention that dispositional hope represents a robust proximal determinant of psychological adjustment, we tested for a mediation model in which the hypothesized impact of sexual assault on depressive and anxious symptoms was expected to be mediated through hope agency and pathways. Interestingly, results from conducting bootstrapped mediation analyses in predicting depressive and anxious symptoms provided evidence for a specific mediation model.

First, we found that hope agency, but not hope pathways, mediated the association between sexual assault and both depressive and anxious symptoms in females. Although Snyder et al. (1991) previously contended that both hope agency and pathways represent important and complimentary processes involved in fostering psychological and physical health, our findings point to the greater role of hope agency, than hope pathways, in accounting for the link between sexual assault and negative affective conditions in females. These findings are consistent with those obtained in Chang’s (2003) study of middle-aged males and females, which showed that hope agency, but not hope pathways, was uniquely linked to predicting depressive symptoms in females. In contrast, hope pathways, but not hope agency, was uniquely linked to predicting depressive symptoms in males. Taken together, these findings suggest that hope agency, compared with hope pathways, may represent a more robust determinant of negative affective conditions in females, than in males. Although it is not clear what may account for this pattern in females, one possibility may be due to sex differences in social problem-solving abilities (Chang, 2003), especially given evidence that females, compared with males, hold a stronger negative problem orientation (i.e., typically believe that problems in living are difficult to resolve; D’Zurilla, Maydeu-Olivares, & Kant, 1998).

Our findings for females point to the potential value of applying specific interventions that focus on dispositional hope in general, and hope agency more specifically. In particular, hope-based interventions (e.g., Cheavens, Feldman, Gum, Michael, & Snyder, 2006) that help to foster or maintain positive appraisals of one’s ability to reach desired goals might prove to be particularly useful when working with female students who have been victims of sexual assault. For example, Feldman and Dreher (2012) found that a brief 90-min hope visualization exercise was more effective, compared with a 90-min relaxation control intervention, in increasing both dispositional hope (both agency and pathways) and purpose in life from pre- to post-test in a sample of college students. This hope visualization exercise involved getting students to vividly imagine being able to take steps toward reaching important self-identified goals. Thus, it would be interesting to determine whether for victimized female students, greater time spent vividly visualizing themselves as active and able agents of change (e.g., “I have been capable of achieving many of my life goals”), rather than vividly visualizing ways they would pursue specific personal goals (e.g., “I would talk with someone I trust to seek support or guidance”), might play a particularly important role in abating the development of negative affective conditions. Given that Feldman and Dreher found evidence for immediate positive effects of their one-session hope intervention in a general sample of college students, one might consider the usefulness of offering such a brief general hope intervention to foster greater resilience in all college students (including those who may not have experienced any victimization in college, but may have experienced victimization earlier in their lives), with additional sessions that may help to specifically bolster hope agency, hope pathways, or both, depending on the goals of intervention (e.g., reducing the development of depressive symptoms among students who have been sexually victimized or re-victimized). Noteworthy, Gilman, Schumm, and Chard (2012) found that the results of a 6-week intervention applying cognitive processing therapy (e.g., linking thoughts to feelings, accepting more realistic appraisals of stressful situations) to adults experiencing posttraumatic stress disorder or PTSD (e.g., depressive symptoms, repeated disturbing thoughts) not only reduced their symptoms, but also resulted in increased dispositional hope from pre- to post-treatment. Thus, there appears to be a number of effective ways in which dispositional hope, or specific dimensions of hope, might be increased in adults, including among those who have been victimized or traumatized in the past.

Second, in contrast to our hypothesized model for complete mediation, we only found support for partial mediation involving hope agency. That is, sexual assault was found to remain a significant predictor of greater negative affective conditions in female students, independent of their loss of dispositional hope. Thus, although efforts to bolster beliefs about one’s ability to reach important goals may be applied as a means to weaken the positive link between sexual assault and negative affective conditions, the central problem remains one of being a victim of sexual assault in the first place. Because researchers have found that prior exposure to interpersonal violence, including sexual assault, among college students is associated with greater risk for subsequent re-victimization (e.g., Aosved & Long, 2005; Gidycz, Hanson, & Layman, 1995), our findings point to a critical need for both researchers and practitioners to help identify, develop, and implement effective and sustainable campus-wide strategies and programs that work to both prevent sexual assault as well as respond to sexual assault victimization among college students. For example, according to Koss, Wilgus, and Williamsen (2014), it is the obligation of the university to impose sufficient accountability on educating responsible individuals. They argue that rather than seeking to simply threaten and punish (e.g., loss of privileges, fines, and suspension) those who commit sexual assaults, a restorative justice framework would point to the greater value of applying institutional efforts and programs that help perpetrators accept responsibility and take an active role in repairing (e.g., validating the harm they have done to victims, making reparations, and undertaking activities to prevent reoccurrence) the harm they have done as a more useful way to manage student misconduct on campus. On a broader level, the application of such a framework might be useful in preventing future instances of sexual assault on campus by cultivating a core value of interpersonal responsibility among all students to do no harm (Koss, 2014). Among those already victimized, the use of hope-fostering interventions (e.g., Gilman et al., 2012) may prove to be effective in partly reducing unwanted experiences of negative affective conditions.

Some Limitations of the Present Study

Some limitations of the present study are worth keeping in mind. First, we focused on the impact of sexual assault victimization in female college students. However, as noted earlier, sexual assault occurs to both men and women. Thus, it remains important to determine whether loss of dispositional hope represents an important mediator of the link between sexual assault victimization and negative affective conditions in male college students. Relatedly, the present sample was predominantly White. Hence, it would be useful to also determine the generalizability of the present findings in more diverse racial/ethnic groups (e.g., Black females, Latin American females). As some studies have shown, even the associations of dispositional hope with psychological outcomes have been found to vary across different racial and ethnic groups (e.g., Chang & Banks, 2007). Second, given that other variables have been identified as potential mediators (e.g., avoidant coping; Bedard-Gilligan et al., 2014), it would be important to determine whether dispositional hope remains useful in accounting for the association between sexual assault and negative affective conditions when other mediators are considered. Third, the present study focused on examining the associations of sexual assault with depressive and anxious symptoms in female students. Because PTSD symptoms have also been positively associated with sexual assault victimization in females (e.g., Najdowski & Ullman, 2009), it would be important to determine whether the present findings also hold for predicting PTSD symptoms. Relatedly, given that our study focused on those who did and did not report any form of sexual assault victimization, future studies based on larger samples may be useful for addressing more complex questions based on alternative models or measures of sexual assault victimization. For example, it would be useful to determine whether hope agency represents a significant mediator of the link between sexual assault and negative affective conditions when studying females who have experienced some to multiple instances of sexual assault (i.e., polyvictimization; Richmond, Elliott, Pierce, Aspelmeier, & Alexander, 2009). In other words, fourth, given that dispositional hope has been found to be strongly associated, but not redundant with other conceptually related personality variables (e.g., optimism, personal control, and self-efficacy; Snyder et al., 1991), it would be important to determine the extent to which our findings are unique to dispositional hope. Finally, given the cross-sectional nature of the present study, it would be useful in future works to build on the present findings to examine the impact of sexual assault on prospective changes in dispositional hope and negative affective conditions in female college students.

Concluding Thoughts

We conducted the present study to determine whether loss of dispositional hope represented a useful mechanism by which sexual assault is associated with greater negative affective conditions in female college students. Importantly, we found that loss of hope agency, but not hope pathways, significantly mediated the associations of sexual assault victimization with depressive and anxious symptoms in females. Beyond hope agency, we found that sexual assault victimization remained a significant predictor of negative affective conditions in females. Accordingly, our findings indicate that sexual assault victimization may have both a direct and an indirect influence (through the loss of hope agency) in the development of depressive and anxious symptoms in female college students. For this reason, it is clear that greater efforts need to be made to prevent occurrences of sexual assault on campus.

Footnotes

Acknowledgements

The first author would like to acknowledge Chang Suk-Choon and Tae Myung-Sook for their encouragement and support throughout this project.

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Author Biographies

Edward C. Chang is Professor of Psychology and Social Work in the Department of Psychology and the School of Social Work at the University of Michigan. His interests involve optimism/pessimism, perfectionism, coping, and cultural influences on behavior.

Zunaira Jilani is a graduate student in the Department of Psychology at the University of Michigan. Her interests involve the study of mindfulness, domestic violence, sexual assault and mental health, and the psychology of South Asians.

Tina Yu is a student in the Department of Psychology at the University of Michigan. Her interests involve ethnic/racial psychology, sexual assault and trauma, eating disturbances, chronic illness, and cultural variations in adjustment.

Jiachen Lin is a student in the Department of Psychology at the University of Michigan. Her interests involve dental care seeking behaviors, sexual assault victimization, loneliness, and psychological adjustment.

Mine Muyan is a graduate student in the Department of Educational Sciences at Middle East Technical University. Her interests involve international psychology and the study of hope, loneliness, perfectionism, intimate partner violence, and coping as predictors of adjustment in adults.

Jameson K. Hirsch is Associate Professor in the Department of Psychology at East Tennessee State University. His interests involve personality, culture and health, psychopathology, coping and suicide prevention.

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