Maltreatment and Affective and Behavioral Problems in Emerging Adults With and Without Oppositional Defiant Disorder Symptoms: Mediation by Parent

Abstract

The current study examined the indirect effect of maternal and paternal emotional and physical maltreatment on affective and behavioral symptoms of oppositional defiant disorder (ODD) through parent–child relationship quality; gender and overall ODD symptoms were examined as moderators. Participants included 2,362 emerging adults who completed questionnaires about parental emotional and physical maltreatment, parent–child relationship quality, and affective and behavioral ODD symptoms. These characteristics were compared across parent and child gender (i.e., maternal and paternal effects as well as male and female differences) as well as participants reporting high and low ODD symptoms. In the low ODD group, indirect effects of emotional maltreatment occurred in all parent–child dyads except the mother–son dyad, whereas in the high ODD group, indirect effects occurred only in the father–son dyad. Indirect effects of physical maltreatment occurred only in the father–son dyad in the low ODD group, and only in the mother–daughter dyad on behavioral ODD symptoms in the high ODD group. The results suggest that specific parent–child gender dyads respond differently, warranting further investigation of gender effects. Moreover, emerging adults in the low ODD symptoms group demonstrated a positive association between parental maltreatment and ODD symptoms and a negative association between parent–child relationship quality and ODD symptoms, whereas those high in the high ODD symptoms group did not demonstrate these associations. That is, emerging adults reporting high ODD symptoms demonstrated no relationship between their ODD symptoms and harsh parenting, suggesting an ineffective coercive process.

Keywords

oppositional defiant disorder emerging adult maltreatment parent–child gender

Although oppositional defiant disorder (ODD) is traditionally considered a childhood disorder, research has shown that emerging adults also report ODD symptoms, suggesting that the disorder continues beyond childhood (Burke, Rowe, & Boylan, 2014; Leadbeater, Thompson, & Gruppuso, 2012; Whelan, Stringaris, Maughan, & Barker, 2013). Indeed, individuals with ODD symptoms in childhood experience long lasting negative effects into emerging adulthood, such as poor interpersonal relationships, workplace problems, lower academic attainment, and more injuries (Burke, Waldman, & Lahey, 2010; Loeber, Burke, & Pardini, 2009; McClelland & McKinney, 2016; McKinney, Morse, & Pastuszak, 2016). Individuals with ODD symptoms who have experienced parental emotional and physical maltreatment have been shown to have even worse outcomes, such as poor quality interpersonal relationships (Li et al., 2016). Specifically, Li and colleagues (2016) examined a group of children with ODD, their parents, and their teachers and found that both emotional and physical abuse was related to poor interpersonal relationships. Children with more maltreatment also had the worst interpersonal relationships and were more likely to have experienced other forms of maltreatment (Li et al., 2016).

However, little research has been conducted to determine what mediating factors may influence the effect of parental maltreatment on ODD symptoms; for example, child maltreatment has been negatively related to parent–child relationship quality, which often leads to worse child outcomes like poor interpersonal relationships (Li et al., 2016). The current study advances current research by examining whether parent–child relationship quality mediated the relationship between parental emotional and physical maltreatment and affective and behavioral symptoms of ODD. In addition, gender was examined as a moderator among these relationships (i.e., moderated mediation, or an indirect effect that is conditional on a moderator, for example, the indirect effect of parental maltreatment on ODD symptoms being different between males and females).

Parental Emotional and Physical Maltreatment and ODD Outcomes

Research has suggested that children with ODD are at greater risk for childhood maltreatment, likely related to their noncompliance and intense anger (Tseng, Xing, & Zhao, 2011). Indeed, parents often resort to physical methods to obtain compliance, such as kicking, slapping, or the use of objects (Tseng et al., 2011). The use of harsh discipline also has been associated with increased oppositional, aggressive, and internalizing behaviors among individuals with ODD (Stormshak, Bierman, McMahon, & Lengua, 2000). Similarly, children with ODD who experienced parental emotional maltreatment had poorer parent–child relationships compared with those who did not experience emotional maltreatment (Lin et al., 2016). Thus, parental maltreatment often leads to worse outcomes, such as poor relationships and increased internalizing and externalizing problems, especially for individuals with ODD symptoms.

Parent–Child Relationship Quality and ODD Symptoms

Parent–child relationship quality consists of involvement, conflict, structure, and mutual parent–child respect, with high relationship quality characterized by high involvement, structure, and mutual respect and low conflict (Elkins, McGue, & Iacono, 1997). Children with ODD tend to have poorer parent–child relationship quality as they have more conflict, less structure, and less respect with parents (Munkvold, Lundervold, & Manger, 2011). In part, conflict occurs because children with behavioral problems often have negative relationships and hostile and negative communication with their parents and peers (Edwards, Barkley, Laneri, Fletcher, & Metevia, 2001; Epstein & Saltzman-Benaiah, 2010). Crick and Dodge (1996) suggested that these children may perceive many social situations as threatening; when they feel threatened, they may lash out and subsequently be socially rejected (Dodge et al., 2003). Poor parent–child relationship quality also may be related to the high comorbidity of psychological disorders of children who experience ODD symptoms as well as general emotional maladjustment (Greene et al., 2002; Stringaris, Maufhan, & Goodman, 2010).

Patterson’s Coercion Theory

According to Patterson’s (2002) coercion theory, parent–child interactions are a bidirectional model where both parents and children influence each other. Specifically, parent–child interactions create a cycle such that parents who lack effective skills tend to use harsh parenting behaviors to enforce their children’s compliance, and these negative parenting behaviors result in more disruptive behaviors (Burke, Pardini, & Loeber, 2008; Pardini, 2008). Thus, per Patterson’s (2002) coercion theory, the behaviors of both parents and children can lead to a more hostile environment. When children display ODD symptoms, symptoms which are made worse or better depending on their parents’ behaviors, parents may use ineffective parenting techniques. Thus, many children with conduct problems also come from home environments with hostility and conflict (Edwards et al., 2001). Moreover, research has indicated that ODD symptoms in childhood predicted worse outcomes in emerging adulthood, such as poor parent–child relationship quality, indicating that ODD symptoms can have long reaching effects on parent–child relationship quality (Burke et al., 2014).

ODD in Emerging Adults and Gender Differences

Given how pervasive the effects of ODD can be in childhood (e.g., problems in social, academic, and home settings), it follows that these symptoms continue into adulthood (Greene et al., 2002; Leadbeater & Homel, 2015). Specifically, although some individuals who meet criteria for ODD during childhood go on to meet criteria for Antisocial Personality Disorder (ASPD) in adulthood, many do not. Despite not meeting criteria for ASPD, these individuals continue to have long lasting negative effects into emerging adulthood, such as poor interpersonal relationships, increased irritability, more injuries, as well as functional impairment at work and in school (Burke et al., 2010; Loeber et al., 2009). Moreover, individuals with ODD tend to experience other psychological problems such as depression and anxiety (Boylan, Vaillancourt, & Szatmari, 2012; Burke, 2012).

Previous literature also has suggested gender differences in the trajectory and manifestation of ODD. For example, males and females differed in their trajectories from childhood to emerging adulthood, such that ODD symptoms in males remained stable, whereas females experienced a decrease in symptoms over time (Leadbeater et al., 2012). According to Leadbeater and Homel (2015), ODD symptoms in females were more likely to decrease, whereas males reported an increase in internalizing symptoms; however, both genders reported that defiance and conduct problems decreased over time. Similarly, females were more likely to experience internalizing symptoms and irritability but males reported more defiance during adolescence. Leadbeater and Ames (2017) further found that only males experienced difficulties in educational achievement and females had problems with financial stability and workplace conflict. Thus, males and females appear to experience different symptoms and problems related to ODD symptoms, particularly as they move into adulthood. Despite these studies, further analysis is necessary to better understand gender differences among emerging adults with ODD symptoms, particularly in the context of parental maltreatment and parent–child relationship quality. For example, gender differences may be related to males’ and females’ differing experience of ODD symptoms (e.g., more normative for males to display externalizing problems) rather than their gender per se.

Current Study

The current study expanded the study by Li et al. (2016) by examining the indirect effect of parental emotional and physical maltreatment on affective and behavioral symptoms of ODD through parent–child relationship quality in individuals with and without ODD symptoms. The current study utilizes an emerging adult sample from the Southern United States, whereas the study by Li et al. (2016) utilized children from China, both regions which have been shown to be more accepting of harsher parenting practices and higher respect for elders (Lansford et al., 2014; McKinney & Brown, 2017). Moreover, the current study examined maternal and paternal effects instead of global parental effects as well as child gender specifically as a moderator instead of a control variable. Refer to Figure 1 for a conceptual model of the planned analyses.

Figure 1.

Path analysis.

Hypothesis 1 stated that emerging adults with ODD symptoms would score higher on emotional and physical maltreatment and lower on parent–child relationship quality. Hypothesis 2 stated that emotional maltreatment would be more strongly associated with affective symptoms of ODD and that physical maltreatment would be more strongly associated with behavioral symptoms of ODD. Hypothesis 3 stated that parent–child relationship quality would mediate the relationships between maltreatment and ODD symptoms. Hypothesis 4 stated that the mediational effect would occur in participants classified as having high ODD symptoms but not in participants classified as having low ODD symptoms. Hypothesis 5 stated that these effects would be moderated by gender.

Method

Participants

Participants (N = 2,362; 68.4% female, 31.6% male; 74.0% Caucasian, 20.8% African American, 1.9% Asian, 1.3% Hispanic, 1.9% Other) included emerging adults aged 18 to 25 years (M = 18.85, SD = 1.22) attending a Southern university in the United States (90.4% of participants originated from a Southern state). Participants reported that their primary caregivers consisted of a biological mother and father (66.9%), one biological parent and stepparent (10.4%), single biological parent (13.3%), or other caregivers (3.0%). Most participants also reported that their fathers (53.9%) and mothers (60.5%) had a bachelor’s degree or higher. As described in more detail below, participants were classified as having high (17.3%) or low (82.7%) ODD symptoms.

Measures

Maltreatment

Maltreatment was measured using the Conflict Tactics Scale: Parent-Child Version (CTSPC; Straus, Hamby, Finkelhor, Moore, & Runyan, 1998). Subscales included Maternal and Paternal Psychological Aggression (e.g., shouted, yelled, or screamed at you), which assessed emotional maltreatment, and Physical Assault (e.g., hit you with a fist or kicked you hard), which assessed physical maltreatment. Responses were scored as frequency counts and ranged from never to more than 20 times per year. The CTSPC has demonstrated good psychometrics (Straus et al., 1998) and alphas of the subscales ranged from .81 to .88 in the current study.

Parent–child relationship quality

Parent–child relationship quality was measured by the Parental Environment Questionnaire (PEQ; Elkins et al., 1997). Subscales include Conflict (e.g., my parent often criticizes me), Involvement (e.g., my parent does not know how I spend my time), Regard for Parent (e.g., I am proud of my parent), Regard for Child (e.g., my parent loves me no matter what I do), and Structure (e.g., my parent makes it clear what he or she wants me to do) with responses ranging from definitely true to definitely false. The PEQ has demonstrated good psychometrics (Elkins et al., 1997) and alphas of the subscales ranged from .76 to .91 in the current study. The five subscales of the PEQ were loaded onto a latent construct to indicate maternal and paternal parent–child relationship quality using AMOS 24.0 (Arbuckle, 2016). The model fit the data well (comparative fit index [CFI] = .99, Tucker–Lewis index [TLI] = .96, root mean square error approximation [RMSEA] = .07, standardized root mean square residual [SRMR] = .03) and factor loadings of the five subscales indicated good convergent validity: structure = .70 to .75, regard for child = .84 to .85, regard for parent = .92 across models, involvement = .80 to .85, and conflict = −.52 to −.54. This model was found to be invariant across groups used in the current study, that is, gender groups invariance test: χ²(10, N = 2,362) = 9.92, n.s.; ODD symptom groups invariance test: χ²(10, N = 2,362) = 14.61, n.s., suggesting that this construct did not vary across groups.

ODD variables

The Adult Self-Report (ASR; Rescorla & Achenbach, 2004) was used to measure ODD symptoms using responses ranging from not true to very true or often true. Described in more detail below, the total ODD score was used to classify groups of emerging adults with high and low ODD symptoms, and subdimensions of the ODD scale included irritability and defiant/vindictive and were used to assess affective and behavioral ODD symptoms, respectively. Items on the irritability subdimension included I argue a lot; I blame others for my problems; I am stubborn, sullen, or irritable; I have a hot temper, and I get upset too easily. Items on the defiant/vindictive subdimension included I am mean to others, I break rules at work or elsewhere, I get along badly with my family, my behavior is irresponsible, and I fail to pay my debts. The ASR has demonstrated good psychometrics (Rescorla & Achenbach, 2004), and alphas of the total ODD scale as well as subscales ranged from .81 to .86 in the current study.

Procedure

Data from participants were aggregated over several studies at a Southern university. Across all studies, the purpose was to examine the relationships among parenting characteristics and psychological adjustment in emerging adult college students. All participants in these studies responded to the questionnaires described above, in addition to other study-specific questionnaires about parenting style, parental psychological problems, and parental warmth and overprotection. All respondents came from a participant pool in a psychological research program and completed studies online. An informed consent form for the study they participated in was presented first to participants, who then responded to all questionnaires in random order with respect to current perceptions and completed mother and father forms separately (i.e., data are from participants’ current perspective). Participants were instructed to report on the parents whom they felt were their primary caregivers, as reflected in the Participants section above. Participants were given a printable debriefing form and research credit upon completion of or voluntary withdrawal from their study.

Data Analysis Plan

The measurement of ODD symptoms in emerging adults using the ASR was developed with a psychometrically sound method as described by McKinney, Walker, and Kwan (submitted) and McKinney and Szkody (submitted). Specifically, confirmatory factor analysis by McKinney and Szkody demonstrated that a two-factor model with irritability and defiant/vindictive subdimensions fitted the data best, consistent with prior research on subdimensions of ODD. Thus, those two subdimensions were used to assess affective and behavioral outcomes (i.e., relationship quality), respectively, similarly to Li et al. (2016). In addition, latent class analysis of ODD items by McKinney et al. indicated the existence of two groups: Those with high ODD symptoms (17.3%, reporting an average of 7.56 out of 10 symptoms, consistent with exceeding cutoffs indicating clinical risk) and those with low ODD symptoms (82.3%, reporting an average of 2.00 out of 10 symptoms, consistent with cutoffs indicating no risk). Thus, these two groups were used to distinguish participants based on their ODD symptoms (i.e., ODD class).

Hypothesis 1 was tested using SPSS 24.0 (IBM Corp., 2016) with a multivariate analysis of covariance (MANCOVA) using participant gender and ODD class as between-subject factors, parent gender as a within-subject factor, and parent education and participant race as covariates to predict emotional and physical maltreatment and parent–child relationship quality. Partial η² served as the measure of effect size for the MANCOVAs, where values of .01 to .04, .04 to .14, and greater than .14 are considered small, medium, and large, respectively (Cohen, 1988). Hypotheses 2 through 5 were tested using path analyses in AMOS 24.0 (Arbuckle, 2016); parent education and participant race were used as controls in all path analyses. Hypothesis 2 was tested by examining direct effects and comparing them using pairwise parameter comparisons, which produce Z scores indicating significant differences in paths (i.e., Z scores ≥ 1.96 are significant at p ≤.05), similar to comparing correlation coefficients with Fisher’s r (Byrne, 2013). Hypothesis 3 was tested by examining indirect effects estimated with bootstrapping using 2,000 iterations, as suggested by Hayes (2009) and MacKinnon (2008). Hypotheses 4 and 5 were examined using multiple group analyses and pairwise parameter comparisons to compare groups of males and females who were classified as high and low in ODD symptoms.

Results

Group Comparisons and Free Correlations

Except in cases where participants reported on a single caregiver (i.e., their data were retained with the exception of their report on a second caregiver), listwise deletion was used for missing data, resulting in 1.9% data loss. Table 1 displays descriptive statistics of the variables. As shown in Table 2, results of the MANCOVA to test Hypothesis 1 (i.e., emerging adults with high ODD symptoms would report higher emotional and physical maltreatment and lower parent–child relationship quality) indicated significant multivariate effects for parent and participant gender as well as ODD class. No multivariate interaction effects were significant. Univariate effects indicated that mothers were reported to be higher in both emotional and physical maltreatment than fathers and that males reported receiving more physical maltreatment and lower parent–child relationship quality than females. Univariate effects also indicated that emerging adults high in ODD symptoms reported higher levels of emotional and physical maltreatment as well as lower levels of parent–child relationship quality, supporting Hypothesis 1.

Table 1.

Descriptive Statistics.

	Maternal M (SD)	Paternal M (SD)
Involvement	28.79 (5.97)	25.46 (7.26)
Structure	11.92 (2.08)	11.62 (2.31)
Conflict	10.22 (6.44)	9.22 (6.61)
Regard for parent	20.42 (4.20)	19.31 (5.12)
Regard for child	13.27 (2.27)	12.84 (2.64)
Emotional maltreatment	14.58 (21.81)	9.26 (16.90)
Physical maltreatment	10.96 (26.03)	7.52 (19.61)

Note. N = 2,376. Oppositional defiant disorder symptoms M (SD) = 3.37(2.87).

Table 2.

Multivariate Analysis of Covariance.

Effects	F	Partial η²
Maternal vs. paternal	F	Partial η²	Maternal M (SE)	Paternal M (SE)
Multivariate effect	39.34	.05	—	—
Emotional maltreatment	109.71	.04	18.26 (.60)	12.23 (.46)
Physical maltreatment	47.00	.02	16.94 (.70)	12.74 (.52)
Parent–child relationship	n.s.		−1.43 (.13)	−1.31 (.15)
Male vs. female			Male M (SD)	Female M (SD)
Multivariate effect	12.00	.02	—	—
Emotional maltreatment	n.s.		15.19 (.69)	15.30 (.57)
Physical maltreatment	14.74	.01	16.89 (.82)	12.79 (.68)
Parent–child relationship	17.53	.01	−1.85 (.18)	−0.88 (.15)
High ODD vs. Low ODD			High ODD M (SD)	Low ODD M (SD)
Multivariate effect	124.53	.14	—	—
Emotional maltreatment	98.14	.04	19.65 (.80)	10.84 (.40)
Physical maltreatment	186.96	.07	22.15 (.96)	7.53 (.48)
Parent–child relationship	258.13	.10	−3.22 (.21)	0.48 (.10)

Note. Multivariate effects df = 3, 2368; univariate effects df = 1, 2370; all p < .001 unless indicated as n.s. Total N = 2,376, male n = 749, female n = 1,625, high ODD n = 410, low ODD n = 1,966. ODD = oppositional defiant disorder.

Before examining Hypothesis 2, correlations among variables across males and females with high and low ODD symptoms were examined. As shown in Table 3, variables correlated as expected among males and females who reported low ODD symptoms. Specifically, parental maltreatment variables were related positively and parent–child relationship quality was related negatively to affective and behavioral ODD symptoms. However, these correlations did not remain consistent when examining males and females with high ODD symptoms. In particular, parental maltreatment variables were unrelated to affective and behavioral ODD symptoms in all cases except maternal physical maltreatment relating positively to behavioral ODD symptoms in males who reported high ODD symptoms. Moreover, parent–child relationship quality did not share a relationship with affective ODD symptoms in females who reported high ODD symptoms, although other relationships with parent–child relationship quality were as expected when examining males and females high in ODD symptoms.

Table 3.

Correlations Among Variables Across Gender and ODD Class.

Low ODD Symptom Group	1.	2.	3.	4.	5.	6.	7.	8.
1. Maternal emotional maltreatment	—	.41	.54	.27	−.29	−.11	.18	.22
2. Paternal emotional maltreatment	.57	—	.29	.47	−.07	−.24	.17	.21
3. Maternal physical maltreatment	.51	.38	—	.53	−.15	−.07	.05	.12
4. Paternal physical maltreatment	.43	.61	.67	—	n.s.	−.13	.07	.10
5. Mother–child relationship quality	−.23	−.12	−.17	−.14	—	.30	−.11	−.19
6. Father–child relationship quality	−.16	−.18	−.12	−.20	.59	—	−.15	−.20
7. Affective ODD symptoms	.27	.19	.08	.12	−.11	−.14	—	.77
8. Behavioral ODD symptoms	.30	.26	.17	.21	−.15	−.16	.76	—
High ODD Symptom Group	1.	2.	3.	4.	5.	6.	7.	8.
1. Maternal emotional maltreatment	—	.31	.43	n.s.	−.15	−.12	n.s.	n.s.
2. Paternal emotional maltreatment	.35	—	.31	.42	−.19	−.27	n.s.	n.s.
3. Maternal physical maltreatment	.61	.21	—	.43	−.28	−.19	n.s.	n.s.
4. Paternal physical maltreatment	.23	.38	.46	—	−.33	−.24	n.s.	n.s.
5. Mother–child relationship quality	n.s.	n.s.	−.13	−.23	—	.57	n.s.	−.22
6. Father–child relationship quality	n.s.	−.15	−.15	−.17	.60	—	n.s.	−.20
7. Affective ODD symptoms	n.s.	n.s.	n.s.	n.s.	−.13	−.17	—	.68
8. Behavioral ODD symptoms	n.s.	n.s.	.11	n.s.	−.26	−.27	.76	—

Note. Total N = 2,376, male n = 749, female n = 1,625, high ODD n = 410, low ODD n = 1,966. Correlations for males and females appear below and above the diagonals, respectively. All p < .01 unless noted as n.s. ODD = oppositional defiant disorder.

Path Analysis: Direct Effects

Results of the path analysis as shown in Figure 1 are displayed in Table 4. When examining the Low ODD group and affective ODD symptoms, parental emotional maltreatment had positive direct effects on affective and behavioral symptoms of ODD as expected in all cases except for the father–son dyad. In the high ODD group, parental emotional maltreatment did not share a direct effect with ODD symptoms except when examining the mother–daughter and father–son dyads and behavioral ODD symptoms; however, these direct effects unexpectedly were negative, indicating that as emotional maltreatment increased, behavioral ODD symptoms decreased. When examining physical maltreatment, the only significant direct effects occurred in the low ODD group when examining affective ODD symptoms in both mother–child dyads, where maternal physical maltreatment was associated with decreases in affective ODD symptoms in males and females. Hypothesis 2 (i.e., emotional maltreatment would be more strongly associated with affective symptoms of ODD, and physical maltreatment would be more strongly associated with behavioral symptoms of ODD) was not supported as emotional maltreatment was not related more strongly to affective ODD symptoms nor was parental physical maltreatment more strongly related to behavioral ODD symptoms.

Table 4.

Direct and Indirect Effects of Parental Maltreatment on ODD Symptoms Through Parent–Child Relationship Quality.

	Emotional Maltreatment				Physical Maltreatment				Parent–Child Relationship
	Maternal		Paternal		Maternal		Paternal		Maternal		Paternal
Low ODD group	Direct effects
Parent–child relationship	−.16^{a b}	−.30^{a c}	−.11^{a b}	−.23^{a c}	−.10^{a b}	n.s.^{a c}	−.12^{a b}	n.s.^{a c}	—	—	—	—
Affective ODD symptoms	.27^{a b}	.15^{a c}	n.s.^{a b}	.11^{a c}	−.10^b	−.07^c	n.s.^b	n.s.^c	n.s.^b	n.s.^c	−.09^b	−.10^c
Behavioral ODD symptoms	.22^{a b}	.13^{a c}	.10^b	.13^c	n.s.^b	n.s.^c	n.s.^b	n.s.^c	n.s.^{a b}	−.11^{a c}	n.s.^{a b}	−.12^{a c}
High ODD group
Parent–child relationship	n.s.^b	n.s.^c	−.22^b	−.20^c	n.s.^{a b}	−.21^{a c}	n.s.^b	n.s.^c	—	—	—	—
Affective ODD symptoms	n.s.^b	n.s.^c	n.s.^b	n.s.^c	n.s.^b	n.s.^c	n.s.^b	n.s.^c	n.s.^b	n.s.^c	−.16^{a b}	n.s.^{a c}
Behavioral ODD symptoms	n.s.^{a b}	−.13^{a c}	−.13^{a b}	n.s.^{a c}	n.s.^b	n.s.^c	n.s.^b	n.s.^c	n.s.^{a b}	−.20^{a c}	−.20^{a b}	n.s.^{a c}
Low ODD group	Indirect effects
Affective ODD symptoms	n.s.^{a b}	.01^{a c}	.01^a^b	.02^{a c}	n.s.^b	n.s.^c	.01^{a b}	n.s.^{a c}
Behavioral ODD symptoms	n.s.^b	.03^c	.01^b	.03^c	n.s.^b	n.s.^c	.01^b	n.s.^c
High ODD group
Affective ODD symptoms	n.s.^b	n.s.^c	.03^{a b}	n.s.^{a c}	n.s.^b	n.s.^c	n.s.^b	n.s.^c
Behavioral ODD symptoms	n.s.^b	n.s.^c	.04^{a b}	n.s.^{a c}	n.s.^a^b	.04^{a c}	n.s.^b	n.s.^c

Note. Total N = 2,376, male n = 749, female n = 1,625, high ODD n = 410, low ODD n = 1,966. All p < .05 unless noted as n.s. ODD = oppositional defiant disorder.

Indicates paths significantly different between males and females at p < .05.

Male coefficients.

Female coefficients.

When examining direct effects related to parent–child relationship quality, parental emotional maltreatment shared a negative direct effect with parent–child relationship quality as expected in all cases except when examining maternal emotional maltreatment in the high ODD group. Physical maltreatment had a negative direct effect with parent–child relationship quality when examining males only in the ODD group, and in the mother–daughter dyad only when examining the high ODD group. When examining the low ODD group, parent–child relationship quality shared negative direct effects with affective ODD symptoms only in father–child dyads and with behavioral ODD symptoms only in the mother– and father–daughter dyads. In the high ODD group, mother–child relationship quality shared a direct negative effect with behavioral ODD symptoms in then mother–daughter dyad only, and father–son relationship quality only demonstrated negative direct effects with affective and behavioral ODD symptoms.

Path Analysis: Indirect Effects

Indirect effects shown in Table 4 were used to test Hypothesis 3 (i.e., parent–child relationship quality would mediate the relationships between parental maltreatment and ODD symptoms). In the low ODD group, indirect effects of maternal and paternal emotional maltreatment occurred on affective and behavioral ODD symptoms in all cases except for the mother–son dyad. In the high ODD group, these same indirect effects occurred only in the father–son dyad. Fewer indirect effects occurred for physical maltreatment as only paternal physical maltreatment had an indirect effect on male affective and behavioral ODD symptoms in the low ODD group, and only maternal physical maltreatment had an indirect effect on female behavioral ODD symptoms in the high ODD group.

Hypothesis 4 (i.e., mediational effects would occur in the high ODD group but not in the low ODD group) was not supported. In fact, more indirect effects occurred in the low ODD group than in the high ODD group, owing to several direct effects being significantly different between the low and high ODD groups (i.e., pairwise parameter comparison Z > 1.96, p < .05). Specifically, all maternal emotional maltreatment direct effects on parent–child relationship quality and affective and behavioral ODD symptoms were significant and in the expected direction in the low ODD group. However, all these direct effects were significantly different from the high ODD group, where no effects were found except for the negative effect between emotional maltreatment and behavioral ODD symptoms in the mother–daughter dyad. Surprisingly, this suggests that individuals with low ODD symptoms respond as expected to emotional maltreatment, whereas individuals with high ODD symptoms are not affected by emotional maltreatment on the characteristics assessed or experience a decrease of behavioral ODD symptoms as found in the mother–daughter dyad.

Similar but less pronounced results for paternal emotional maltreatment occurred. Specifically, paternal emotional maltreatment was associated with increases in affective and behavioral ODD symptoms in the low ODD group except for the father–son dyad, but these direct effects were significantly different from those found in the high ODD group where no direct effects were found or again unexpectedly negative when examining the father–son dyad. Paternal physical maltreatment direct effects on affective and behavioral ODD symptoms did not different across low and high ODD groups, where all effects were not significant. Maternal physical maltreatment was related negatively to affective ODD symptoms in both genders in the low ODD group, and these direct effects were significantly different from the same effects in the high ODD group where the effects were not significant.

Supporting Hypothesis 5 (i.e., maternal and paternal as well as male and female effects would differ), several indirect effects occurred for one parental effect or in one gender only. In the low ODD group, parental emotional maltreatment had an indirect effect on affective and behavioral ODD symptoms except in the mother–son dyad; parental physical maltreatment had an indirect effect on affective and behavioral ODD symptoms in the father–son dyad only. In the high ODD group, only the father–son dyad demonstrated indirect effects on affective and behavioral ODD symptoms when examining emotional maltreatment, and only the mother–daughter dyad demonstrated an indirect effect on behavioral ODD symptoms when examining physical maltreatment.

Discussion

The current study advanced the literature of the effects of emotional and physical maltreatment on emerging adults with ODD symptoms through the mediating effect of parent–child relationship among different gender dyads. Univariate results demonstrated that participants rated mothers higher in emotional and physical maltreatment than fathers. The higher rates for mothers is consistent with prior research indicating that mothers are more responsible for raising their children and spend more time disciplining their children (Jansen et al., 2012). Results also indicated that males reported higher physical maltreatment and lower parent–child relationship quality than females, consistent with research demonstrating that boys are subject to more physical force than girls (Hallers-Haalboom et al., 2016). This finding could be related to males misbehaving more and evoking more physical punishment or to the socialization of males as tougher and more aggressive than females (Casselman & Rosenbaum, 2014).

The associations between emerging adult ODD symptoms and increased emotional and physical maltreatment were consistent with Hypothesis 1. These findings were the largest effects found, with the multivariate effect large and the univariate effects medium in size. Previous studies also have reported the link between emerging adult ODD and maltreatment. Researchers suggest that individuals with ODD symptoms also exhibit interpersonal deficits which result in irritability, defiance, blaming others, and argumentation (Burke et al., 2014; Leadbeater & Homel, 2015). The increase in oppositional tendencies may evoke harsher reactions from parents, which in turn evoke harsher reactions from children per Patterson’s (2002) coercion theory.

Correlational analysis revealed expected associations in individuals who reported low ODD symptoms. Parental maltreatment, both emotional and physical, was associated with increased behavioral and affective ODD symptoms and lower parent–child relationship quality. Not surprisingly, as parents use maltreatment strategies, children have less regard for their parents and more conflict occurs. In the high ODD symptom group, affective and behavioral ODD symptoms were often unrelated to parental maltreatment, and these correlations carried over to the direct effects as well. Unlike those with low ODD symptoms who showed a direct effect in most relationships, those with high ODD had no or negative relationships between parental maltreatment and affective and behavioral ODD symptoms. In adult children with high ODD symptoms, daughters reported a decrease in behavioral ODD symptoms when their mothers were rated higher in emotional maltreatment, and the same effect occurred in the father–son dyad. These findings suggest that parents of high ODD adult children may be rewarded for using maltreatment strategies given the associated decrease in some negative behavior which is consistent with coercion theory (Li et al., 2016; Patterson, 2002). Hypothesis 4 was unsupported given that indirect effects of parental maltreatment on affective and behavioral symptoms were significant for most relationships in the low ODD symptom group only, whereas most relationships were found to be insignificant for the high ODD symptom group. This finding suggests that those with high ODD symptoms largely were unaffected or resistant to maltreatment from either parent. Perhaps over time, children who experience chronic parental maltreatment no longer respond to it in a significant way when assessing their behavioral and affective ODD symptoms.

Differences in gender results are consistent with prior literature suggesting that physical maltreatment is associated with behavioral problems, whereas emotional maltreatment is associated with affective problems (Li et al., 2016). The indirect effect of physical maltreatment on affective and behavioral ODD symptoms was only significant in the father–son dyad in the low ODD symptom group. The indirect effect of physical maltreatment on behavioral but not affective symptoms was significant only in the mother–daughter dyads in the high ODD group. Whereas most indirect effects between parental emotional maltreatment and affective and behavioral ODD symptoms in the low ODD group were significant, only the father–son dyad demonstrated a significant effect in the high ODD group. These gender differences also may be consistent with findings by Leadbeater and Homel (2015) who demonstrated that males with high ODD symptoms had an increase of internalizing problems as they grew older. As internalizing problems in males increase, the father–son relationship may play a larger role in mediating the relationship between emotional maltreatment and those affective problems.

Implications

The current study’s findings support previous literature about the implications of maltreatment on behavioral problems and the importance of parent–child relationships in emerging adulthood (Li et al., 2016; Sitnick et al., 2015). Parenting interventions designed to inform parents of positive parenting techniques, including the use of behavioral reinforcement, may assist in breaking the pattern of maltreatment and behavioral problems as explained by Patterson’s coercion theory (Patterson, 2002). Studies have shown support for interventions designed to improve positive parent–child engagement and end the cycle of parent–child coercion and behavioral problems in early childhood (Sitnick et al., 2015). Positive parent–child interventions also improve interpersonal skills and behavioral problems that are associated with ODD symptoms (Battagliese et al., 2015).

Strengths and Limitations

The current study was cross-sectional in nature and therefore unable to accurately predict any change over time or demonstrate directionality with confidence. Although prior research and theory support the direction of the variables examined by the current study, future research is encouraged to examine these processes with cross-lag designs. Also, the large number of effects examined increases the probability of type I error. The use of a college sample that is predominantly Caucasian and African American and from the South limits external validity. For example, emerging adults attending university tend to report higher economic backgrounds and less parental maltreatment relative to individuals who are not attending university, especially those who have experienced substantial maltreatment and as a result have more difficulty obtaining education.

The use of a single self-report scale to measure ODD symptoms also is a limitation. Although rating scales are one of the single best predictors of clinical problems, future studies are encouraged to utilize a multimethod, multi-informant assessment of ODD symptoms (McKinney & Morse, 2012). The use of the ASR to assess behavioral and affective ODD symptoms as well as to create high and low ODD symptom groups also is a limitation. Whereas Li et al. (2016) used multiple informants and multiple measures to assess ODD, the current study’s use of a single measure is a limitation. Parenting characteristics also were reported by adult children and as such is subject to informant bias. For example, children who experience high rates of maltreatment are more likely to recall negative experiences relative to positive ones. However, research has demonstrated that adult children are most free to speak about their experiences with their parents as they are under less of their parents’ control (Finley, Mira, & Schwartz, 2008). Nonetheless, future research is encouraged to utilize cross-informant approaches to compare both parent and child reports for a more accurate measure of ODD symptoms, parent–child relationship quality, and parental maltreatment.

Overall, the current study replicated the study by Li et al. (2016) by examining a similar model (i.e., parental emotional and physical maltreatment indirectly influences affective and behavioral ODD symptoms through parent–child relationship quality in children with high and low ODD symptoms). Further, the current study extended the study by Li et al. (2016) by examining maternal and paternal effects separately instead of globally as well as examining gender differences in children specifically instead of as a control variable in a sample of emerging adults instead of children.

Footnotes

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

ORCID iD

Melanie Stearns

Author Biographies

Cliff McKinney is an associate professor of psychology at Mississippi State University. He researches parenting processes and disruptive behavior in emerging adults.

Melanie Stearns is a graduate student in the clinical psychology Ph.D. program at Mississippi State University. She researches religiosity and parent-child relationships.

Erica Szkody is a graduate student in the clinical psychology Ph.D. program at Mississippi State University. She researches social support, stress, and parent-child relationships.

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Maltreatment and Affective and Behavioral Problems in Emerging Adults With and Without Oppositional Defiant Disorder Symptoms: Mediation by Parent–Child Relationship Quality

Abstract

Keywords

Parental Emotional and Physical Maltreatment and ODD Outcomes

Parent–Child Relationship Quality and ODD Symptoms

Patterson’s Coercion Theory

ODD in Emerging Adults and Gender Differences

Current Study

Method

Participants

Measures

Maltreatment

Parent–child relationship quality

ODD variables

Procedure

Data Analysis Plan

Results

Group Comparisons and Free Correlations

Path Analysis: Direct Effects

Path Analysis: Indirect Effects

Discussion

Implications

Strengths and Limitations

Footnotes

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

Funding

ORCID iD

Author Biographies

References