Domestic Violence Against Women in Urban Slums of Bangladesh: A Cross-Sectional Survey

Abstract

Violence against women has been treated as a global epidemic and not uncommon in Bangladesh like in many other low-income countries. The occurrence of domestic violence against women (DVAW) in the urban slums of Bangladesh is not well documented. There is also scarce evidence regarding the factors contributing to DVAW. Hence, the aim of this study was to investigate DVAW in the urban slums and its associated factors in Chittagong, Bangladesh. A cross-sectional survey was conducted among 87 women of reproductive age having at least one child below 5 years of age and staying with their husband for at least last 1 year in selected slums under Chittagong City Corporation area. Structured questionnaire was used to interview the study participants. The data underwent descriptive and regression analysis. Of 87 respondents, 50 (57.5%) reported to suffer from domestic violence by their husband during the last 1 year. Physical violence was found to be significantly associated with age at marriage (p = .043), number of family members (p = .027), and wealth index (p = .000). DVAW is highly prevalent in Bangladesh. More extensive research should be performed to identify the factors contributing to the high prevalence of domestic violence in urban slums of Bangladesh. Household-based intervention incorporating effective community participation, education, and counseling is needed to limit this burning problem.

Keywords

domestic violence battered women disclosure of domestic violence

Background

Violence Against Women in Global Context

Violence against women has been treated as a global epidemic (Garcia-Moreno, Jansen, Ellsberg, Heise, & Watts, 2006; Hayati, Högberg, Hakimi, Ellsberg, & Emmelin, 2011; Heise, Ellsberg, & Gottmoeller, 2002; Mundial, 1993) because most women experience that at least once in their lifetime. Among different types of violence, domestic violence against women (DVAW) has been the most common one around the world (Chowdhury & Morium, 2015; Koss et al., 1994; Naved, Azim, Bhuiyan, & Persson, 2006; Naved, Azim, Persson, & Bhuiya, 2002). In a study conducted in the United States, 52% women reported of physical assault in their lifetime (Garcia-Moreno et al., 2006; Tjaden & Thoennes, 1998). It has been found that the women are at higher risk of violence from an intimate partner than from any other person. The lifetime prevalence of intimate partner violence (IPV) was measured as 30% across the world in 2013 (Devries et al., 2013). Beside, in 2010, for global disability-adjusted life years, IPV was ranked 23rd amid the leading attributable risk factors (Lim et al., 2013; Murray & Lopez, 2013). DVAW, especially in the form of IPV, has been found to be common in different countries and cultures (Bhuiya, Sharmin, & Hanifi, 2003; Burton, Duvvury, & Varia, 2007; Dobash & Dobash, 1979; Goode, 1971).

DVAW in South Asia and Bangladesh

In South Asia, about 42% of women experience IPV in their lifetime (Devries et al., 2013). Like in the other neighboring countries, DVAW is also common in Bangladesh (Chowdhury & Morium, 2015). In 2001, 42% of women in rural Bangladesh reported of physical assault by their husbands in their lifetime (Bhuiya et al., 2003). A study suggested that more than 85% of the women who had ever experienced physical violence reported to counter DVAW for multiple times (Garcia-Moreno et al., 2006). Surveillance data from Matlab, Bangladesh showed that nearly 10% of deaths of women of reproductive age between 1982 and 1998 were directly attributable to violence from their husbands and in-laws (Ahmad, Riaz, Barata, & Stewart, 2004). More than 50% of the women in rural Bangladesh reported to be battered by their husbands or by other family members (Bhuiya et al., 2003). According to Bangladesh Urban Health Survey (National Institute of Population Research and Training, 2006), about 62% of women from slums reported ever being physically assaulted, and the same proportion (62%) of men in slums reported of physically abusing their wives ever (National Institute of Population Research and Training, 2006). In the same survey, the percentages of women who reported to be battered within the previous year were 34.4, 19.3, and 17.0%, respectively, in slums, nonslum areas, and district municipalities (National Institute of Population Research and Training, 2006). A recent study showed that the prevalence of IPV in Dhaka slums is almost 60% (Parvin, Sultana, & Naved, 2016).

Consequences of DVAW

Some researchers have explored how violence affect the health of women and children (Campbell, 2002; Chowdhury & Morium, 2015). The women suffer physically, mentally, socially, and economically by DVAW (Khatun & Rahman, 2012). There might be health consequences ranging from simple injuries to grievous hurt, or psychological consequences, including depression, anxiety, obsession, posttraumatic stress disorder, and even suicidal tendency (Chowdhury & Morium, 2015). There might be negative impact on the children as well if the mother experiences violence (Ackerson & Subramanian, 2009; Heaton & Forste, 2008; Jejeebhoy, Santhya, & Acharya, 2010; Sabarwal, McCormick, Silverman, & Subramanian, 2012). A population-based survey in Mbale, Uganda showed that children who witness violence at home are at a higher risk of emotional, behavioral, and physical problems (Karamagi, Tumwine, Tylleskar, & Heggenhougen, 2007). A study in India showed that the children from families experiencing DVAW were at increased risk of low immunization (Sabarwal et al., 2012). Another study documented the association between DVAW and malnourishment of their children (Ackerson & Subramanian, 2009). In a study in Bangladesh, DVAW was found to be associated with fetal and early childhood growth impairment (Åsling-Monemi, Naved, & Persson, 2009). Beside, it was documented that women exposed to domestic violence are more likely to have a stunted child (Ziaei, Naved, & Ekström, 2014). Nevertheless, DVAW delimits women empowerment and decision-making ability of the women for themselves and also for their children (Jejeebhoy et al., 2010).

Rationale and Objective of the Study

Despite being a prevalent problem, the DVAW was not reported in the latest urban health survey of Bangladesh (National Institute of Population Research and Training, 2013). The recent data regarding DVAW in urban slums are sparse in the country. Moreover, the data which are available are mostly of the capital city. The second largest city of the country, Chittagong, also hosts slum dwellers to a large extent. Therefore, this study aimed at estimating the extent of DVAW and its associated factors in the urban slums of Chittagong, Bangladesh.

Methods

Study Settings and Design

The study was conducted utilizing cross-sectional quantitative methodology in “Lal Khan Bazar,” “Debar Paar’,” and “Wireless” slums of Chittagong, the major port city of Bangladesh. The slums were densely populated (reference) and mostly located at the slope of the hills.

Participants

In November to December 2013, the survey was conducted among 87 women of reproductive age (15-49 years) who had been staying with their husband for at least preceding 1 year. We excluded the women who had been widowed or divorced more than a year ago. The sample size was estimated considering the prevalence of domestic violence at 62%, confidence interval (CI) of 95%, and margin of error (MOE) of 10%. The MOE has been considered as high as 10% because of congested timeline. The sample was collected through convenience sampling. The slum households were visited by the data collectors with a listing form in search for women who meet the inclusion criteria who were ultimately recruited as primary respondents. The survey was continued till the sample size is reached.

Procedure

The data were collected using structured questionnaire adapted from the World Health Organization (WHO) multicountry study (World Health Organization, 2005). As the original questionnaire was comparatively long, it was made shorter because of time constraints. The relevant variables that were found to be associated with DVAW in the available literature, especially in similar settings, were formulated in the questionnaire. Female data collectors were recruited as DVAW is a sensitive issue in the cultural context of Bangladesh. The data collectors were trained extensively on the tools. The reliability and validation strategies comprised of pretesting of the questionnaire and direct involvement of the researcher during the interview process. The study protocol was approved by the ethical review board of James P. Grant School of Public Health, BRAC University. A written informed consent was obtained from each of the participants after detailing the information about the study, as well as providing assurance regarding the maintenance of confidentiality. In addition to that, the victimized respondents were advised to take help from the “one stop crisis center” of Chittagong Medical College Hospital.

Measures

The major outcome measured in this study is the domestic violence in the form of physical violence. In this study, physical violence was defined as scratching, pushing, shoving, throwing, grabbing, biting, choking, shaking, slapping, punching, kicking, burning or doing any other bodily harms like twisting arm or pulling hair by husband or any other family members

Variables

The dependent variable was DVAW, whereas the independent variables included age, profession, educational status, income, wealth index, age at marriage, age at first child, and knowledge about existing law against domestic violence. During analysis, according to the age, the respondents were divided into two groups (≤18 years or >18 years), whereas the respondents’ husbands were grouped as ≤21 and >21 years (mention that the cutoff was selected according to the legal age of marriage in Bangladesh [ref]). The educational status was analyzed into three groups: primary, secondary and higher secondary or more. The variable “number of family members” was analyzed as ≤4 or >4 (because the average family size is 3.6 [ref]). The total family income has been stratified as Bangladeshi Taka (BDT) <7,500 and ≥7,500 (because this was the median value?). During the study, BDT 7,500 was equivalent to US$100. Wealth index included availability of television, radio or tape recorder, fan, CD player, refrigerator, rickshaw or van, land, cupboard, type of sanitation facility, type of water source, and housing status. A highest possible score that could be generated from the list was 13. During analysis, the wealth index is stratified as <7 or ≥7.

Data Analysis

The simple descriptive statistics such as percentage of categorical variables and mean with standard deviation for the continuous variables were employed to see the distribution of samples according to sociodemographic characteristics. A series of simple logistic regressions (bivariate) are conducted with all the potential covariates to identify the associated factors for DVAW. Finally, multiple logistic regression was conducted including the variables found significant in bivariate analysis. The age at marriage, age at first child, total income, number of family members, wealth index, and knowledge regarding existing law (on what) were considered as potential confounders for adjusting in the multiple regression model. The age-related variables have mostly been analyzed as dichotomous variable since 18 years has been regarded as a milestone for adulthood. According to total income, the study population has been classified into two groups based on the US$100 mark. During the study period, the currency exchange rate was 75 Bangladeshi Taka (BDT) per 1 US$; hence, the benchmark for categorization was set at BDT 7,500. The Government of Bangladesh has been promoting two children policy for years, and therefore, the number of the family members has been dichotomized as four or more.

Results

Sociodemographic Characteristics

Table 1 summarizes the sociodemographic characteristics of the study participants. The mean age of the respondents and their husbands were 25.2 and 31.2 years, respectively. About 14% of the participants aged less than 18 years. However, the husbands were mostly (~95%) above 21 years. The wife of the husbands aged 21 years or less (4) did not report to experience domestic violence. The mean age at marriage was 16.7 years, whereas age at first child ranged from 15 to 22 years with a mean age of 18.4 years. About 59.8% respondents got married before the age of 18 years (Figure 1), and 37.9% of the respondents became mother before the age of 18 years. Of 87 respondents, more than half were housemaids (47.1%) and garment workers (25.3%). A number of professions have been reported by the respondents which included housemaid, garment worker, service holder, ayah (cleaner/ support staff), and so on (Figure 2).

Table 1.

Sociodemographic Characteristics of the Respondents (N = 87).

Variable	Domestic Violence (N = 50)	No Domestic Violence (N = 37)	Total (N = 87)
Variable	n(%) or M ± SD	n(%) or M ± SD	n(%) or M ± SD
Age (years)	24.2 ± 5.0	26.2 ± 7.2	25.2 ± 6.2
≤18	6 (12.0)	6 (16.2)	12 (13.8)
>18	44 (88.0)	31 (83.8)	75 (86.2)
Husbands’ age (years)	30.3 ± 6.1	32.2 ± 8.3	31.2 ± 7.1
≤21	0 (0.0)	4 (10.8)	4 (4.6)
>21	50 (100.0)	33 (89.2)	83 (95.4)
Education
1° or less	19 (38.0)	12 (19.4)	31 (35.6)
Between 1^° and 2^°	27 (54.0)	25 (80.6)	52 (59.1)
More than 2^°	4 (8.0)	0 (0.0)	4 (4.6)
Husbands’ education
1^° or less	17 (34.0)	14 (37.8)	31 (35.6)
Between 1^° and 2^°	29 (58.0)	23 (62.2)	52 (59.1)
More than 2^°	4 (8.0)	0 (0.0)	4 (4.6)
# of family members
≤4	20 (40.0)	26 (70.2)	46 (52.9)
>4	30 (60.0)	11 (29.7)	41 (47.1)
Age at marriage	16.8 ± 1.9	16.5 ± 1.9	16.7 ± 1.9
Age at first child	18.5 ± 1.6	18.1 ± 2.0	18.3 ± 1.9
BMI	22.4 ± 2.8	22.2 ± 1.9	22.3 ± 2.4
Total monthly income	8,530 ± 2,403.3	10,905.4 ± 2,864.6	9,540.2 ± 2,529.5
≤BDT 7,500	10 (20.0)	7 (18.9)	17 (19.5)
>BDT 7,500	40 (80.0)	30 (81.1)	70 (80.5)

Note. BMI = Body mass index; BDT = Bangladeshi Taka.

Figure 1.

Percentage of women married at different ages in urban slums of Chittagong, November to December 2013 (N = 87).

Figure 2.

Profession of the respondents in urban slums of Chittagong, November to December 2013 (N = 87).

About 35.6% of respondents had schooling of below primary level, whereas 59.8% attended school between primary and secondary level and the rest 4.6% got secondary education or more. But, in the case of husbands, 9.2% were reported as illiterate by their wives. Total income of the family varied from BDT 4,000 to BDT 15,000 per month with a mean of BDT 9,540.2. The monthly income of 19.5% of families was below BDT 7,500. The body mass index (BMI) of the women ranged from 18.1 to 27.1 with a mean of 22.4 (±2.50). Of 87 respondents, approximately 23.0% of the respondents were underweight and 18.4% of the respondents were overweight.

DVAW and Correlates

Of 87 respondents, 50 (57.5%) reported to suffer from domestic violence by their husbands during the last 1 year. The physical violence included slapping, pushing, punching, kicking, dragging, beating, and threatening or using weapon. Figure 3 shows that most women experienced pushing and slapping among the women who experienced DVAW. Dragging, punching, and kicking were moderately common. Only three (3.4%) women told about being battered by a weapon.

Figure 3.

Types of physical violence encountered by the respondents in urban slums of Chittagong, November to December 2013 (N = 87).

The bivariate analysis between DVAW and age at marriage suggested that marrying at the age of 18 or beyond seemed to be protective for DVAW. The odds of suffering from DVAW was 80% less among the women married at 18 years or beyond than those among the women who married before 18 years of age (odds ratio [OR] 0.2; CI 0.0-0.4; p value: .03). However, when adjusted with other variables, it was found that the odds of suffering from DVAW was 8.2 times higher among the women who married at legally approved age than the others (OR 8.21; CI 1.2-58.2; p value: .04). Age at first child was another variable which was found to be significant during the bivariate analysis (OR 0.2; CI 0.0-0.4; p value: .03), although the relationship was found to be insignificant when adjusting for possible confounders. The number of family members is another factor which was found to be significant regarding association with DVAW during the bivariate analysis (OR 3.5; CI 1.4-8.8; p value: .006). The association persisted during the multivariate analysis which showed that the odds of suffering from DVAW among the women of the families comprising four or more members is 4.1 times higher than that among the women from smaller families (OR 4.1; CI 1.2-14.1; p value: .027). The other factor which was found to be significantly associated with DVAW was wealth index after multivariate analysis (OR 0.04; CI 0.01-0.19; p value: .000); the women living in the families having wealth index of ≥7 are less prone to suffer from DVAW than the others. Table 2 shows the unadjusted odds ratios (UOR) and adjusted odds ratios (AOR) for different variables in relation to DVAW.

Table 2.

UOR and AOR of Different Variables for Association With Domestic Violence Against Women.

Independent Variables		Domestic Violence Against Women
Independent Variables		UOR	AOR
Age (years)	<18	1.0	1.0
Age (years)	≥18	1.4 (.4, 4.8), p = .57	0.34 (0.06, 1.92), p = .22
Age at marriage (years)	<18	1.0	1.0
Age at marriage (years)	≥18 yrs	0.2 (0.0, 0.4), p = .03	8.21 (1.16, 58.16), p = .043
Age at first child (years)	<18	1.0	1.0
Age at first child (years)	≥18	0.2 (0.0, 0.4). p = .03	5.04 (0.64, 39.80), p = .13
Total income	<BDT 7,500	1.0	1.0
Total income	≥BDT 7,500	0.9 (.3, 2.7), p = .90	0.82 (0.168, 4.19), p = .81
# of family members	≤4	1.0	1.0
# of family members	>4	3.5 (1.4, 8.8), p = .006	4.06 (1.16, 14.10), p = .027
Wealth index	<7	1.0	1.0
Wealth index	≥7	0.41 (0.15, 1.08), p = .07	0.04 (0.01, 0.19), p = .000
Knowledge regarding existing law	No	1.0	1.0
Knowledge regarding existing law	Yes	0.31 (0.08, 1.14), p = .08	0.20 (0.02, 1.88), p = .16

Note. UOR = Unadjusted Odds Ratio; AOR = Adjusted Odds Ratio. Bold face values signify level of significance.

p ≤ 0.05.

Discussion

In this study, it has been found that the respondents (n = 87) residing in the slums mostly belong to lower socioeconomic group. Most of them underwent early marriage followed by early pregnancy. Among the respondents, about 47% were housemaids and 25% were garment workers. Most of the families are nuclear as they are migrant people and have to live in a very small space with the family.

Of 87 respondents, 50 (57.5%) reported to have suffered from domestic violence by their husband during the last 1 year. According to the Bangladesh Urban Health Survey (National Institute of Population Research and Training, 2006), 48% of women reported about physical violence in the slum areas of city corporations (National Institute of Population Research and Training, 2013). Thus, the findings of this study correspond with the last available Bangladesh Urban Health Survey (BUHS) data regarding DVAW in urban slums. However, another study suggested that prevalence of DVAW in urban slums is 60% (Parvin et al., 2016) which shows higher incidence of DVAW than to the current study findings.

The associated factors for DVAW which has been revealed in this study are age at marriage, number of family members, and wealth index. Interestingly, it has been found that the women who married at or beyond legally acceptable age have 8.2 times more odds to suffer from DVAW in contrast to those who had experienced marriage at earlier age. This specific finding is not supported by related published works. However, it might be the fact that young brides are less susceptible to be battered by the husbands. According to the study findings, the women in the larger families (having more than four members) are more prone to experience DVAW. It corresponds to the findings of different studies in which family size has been recognized as a risk factor for DVAW (Abramsky et al., 2011; Ahmad et al., 2004; Chowdhury & Morium, 2015; Khatun & Rahman, 2012). The relationship between wealth index and DVAW suggests that the high socioeconomic condition is protective for the women. The socioeconomic status is also regarded as a correlate with DVAW in a number of studies (Abramsky et al., 2011; Khatun & Rahman, 2012; Lim et al., 2013; Naved & Persson, 2005). It has been evidenced by different studies that the risk factors might include education, alcohol abuse, age, outside sex partners, and so on which has not been supported by the current study. However, alcohol abuse and outside sex partners have not been explored in this study because of cultural barriers.

Limitations of the Study

DVAW is a sensitive and less addressed issue in Bangladesh. Researching in this area has always been a challenge. Hence, there might have been some reporting bias. The women, who were interviewed, were reluctant to answer the questions on this sensitive topic. To address this problem, the research assistant established a good rapport with the participants so that they could feel free to answer questions. Some male members resisted these data collection procedures in the slums. To address this problem, the researcher decided to take permission from the administrative authority and local stakeholders. It has been a big problem during this thesis process. The researcher had to minimize the sample size to address this issue. However, these findings may not be generalizable because of small sample size, cross-sectional study design, and convenience sampling.

Household-based interventions incorporating all the related family members are needed to limit this burning problem. In addition, proper counseling and motivation should be provided to the married couples. The interventions highlighting effective community participation, education, and counseling are essential to create awareness among the community. The long-term consequences of IPV and its negative impact on children’s social, emotional, and cognitive development can be disseminated through posters, leaflets, and workshops. Mass media can help explore the knowledge through drama, movies, and so on to change the attitude toward women and cultural beliefs on some behavior of the rural and urban people.

Conclusion

In this postmillennial era of righteousness, the violence against women is still a strapping barrier in the pathway to establish equity, especially in the low- and middle-income countries. More extensive research should be performed in mixed method to identify the factors contributing to the high prevalence of domestic violence in urban slums of Bangladesh.

Footnotes

Acknowledgements

MAKC conceived the study and wrote the proposal, obtained research funding/ethics approval, and collected and analyzed the data for manuscript writing. SEA supervised the study throughout. SEA and AEH supervised, reviewed, and contributed to study design, tool development, and analysis. SM helped actively in data collection and manuscript writing. MMH contributed in tool development, as well as in data analysis. AB provided support in writing the manuscript and in reviewing. All authors read and approved the final manuscript. The authors of this article would like to acknowledge James P Grant School of Public Health (JPGSPH) for its funding support for this research project and the participants of this study.

Authors’ Note

Afsana Bhuiyan is now affiliated with London Northwest Healthcare Trust, Harrow, UK.

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The author(s) disclosed receipt of the following financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article: James P. Grant School of Public Health, BRAC University had provided partial financial support for this research but had no role in study design, data collection or analysis, report writing or decision to publish these research data in peer-reviewed journals.

ORCID iD

Mohiuddin Ahsanul Kabir Chowdhury

Author Biographies

Mohiuddin Ahsanul Kabir Chowdhury is a medical graduate with higher degree (Masters) in Public Health. He has been working as Senior Research Investigator in Maternal and Child Health Division, icddr,b since 2014. Currently, he is leading a couple of studies as Principal Investigator and working in a number of projects as Coprincipal Investigator and Coinvestigator.

Ahmed Ehsanur Rahman is also a medical graduate with an MPH. Currently, he is working as an Assistant Scientist in Maternal and Child Health Division, icddr,b. He is involved in several research projects. He is especially inclined toward newborn research.

Salma Morium is an Assistant Professor of Law at a private university of Bangladesh. She is a law graduate and also possesses affiliations with bar council.

Mohammad Mehedi Hasan is an MPH and currently working as Research Investigator in Maternal and Child Health Division, icddr,b.

Afsana Bhuiyan is a medical graduate with higher degree in public health. Currently, she is serving as a registered doctor at London Northwest Healthcare Trust, Harrow, United Kingdom.

Shams El Arifeen is a doctorate from Bloomberg School of Public Health, Johns Hopkins University. He is one of the leaders of maternal and child health in Bangladesh. He is the Senior Scientist and Senior Director of Maternal and Child Health Division, icddr,b. He has authored numerous articles in international high-impact journals.

References

Abramsky

Watts

C. H.

Garcia-Moreno

Devries

Kiss

Ellsberg

. . . Heise

(2011). What factors are associated with recent intimate partner violence? Findings from the WHO multi-country study on women’s health and domestic violence. BMC Public Health, 11(1), Article 109.

Ackerson

L. K.

Subramanian

(2009). Intimate partner violence and death among infants and children in India. Pediatrics, 124(5), e878-e889.

Ahmad

Riaz

Barata

Stewart

D. E.

(2004). Patriarchal beliefs and perceptions of abuse among South Asian immigrant women. Violence Against Women, 10, 262-282.

Åsling-Monemi

Naved

R. T.

Persson

L. Å

. (2009). Violence against women and the risk of fetal and early childhood growth impairment: A cohort study in rural Bangladesh. Archives of Disease in Childhood, 94, 775-779.

Bhuiya

Sharmin

Hanifi

(2003). Nature of domestic violence against women in a rural area of Bangladesh: Implication for preventive interventions. Journal of Health, Population and Nutrition, 21, 48-54.

Burton

Duvvury

Varia

(2007). Justice, change, and human rights: International research and responses to domestic violence. Washington, DC: International Center for Research on Women and the Centre for Development and Population Activities.

Campbell

J. C.

(2002). Health consequences of intimate partner violence. The Lancet, 359, 1331-1336.

Chowdhury

M. A. K.

Morium

(2015). Domestic violence against women: A historic and socio-cultural reality in Bangladesh. European Scientific Journal, 11, 1857-7881.

Devries

K. M.

Mak

J. Y.

García-Moreno

Petzold

Child

J. C.

Falder

. . . Rosenfeld

(2013). The global prevalence of intimate partner violence against women. Science, 340, 1527-1528.

10.

Dobash

R. E.

Dobash

(1979). Violence against wives: A case against the patriarchy. New York, NY: The Free Press.

11.

Garcia-Moreno

Jansen

H. A.

Ellsberg

Heise

Watts

C. H.

(2006). Prevalence of intimate partner violence: Findings from the WHO multi-country study on women’s health and domestic violence. The Lancet, 368, 1260-1269.

12.

Goode

W. J.

(1971). Force and violence in the family. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 33, 624-636.

13.

Hayati

E. N.

Högberg

Hakimi

Ellsberg

M. C.

Emmelin

(2011). Behind the silence of harmony: Risk factors for physical and sexual violence among women in rural Indonesia. BMC Women’s Health, 11(1), Article 52.

14.

Heaton

T. B.

Forste

(2008). Domestic violence, couple interaction and children’s health in Latin America. Journal of Family Violence, 23, 183-193.

15.

Heise

Ellsberg

Gottmoeller

(2002). A global overview of gender-based violence. International Journal of Gynecology & Obstetrics, 78, S5-S14.

16.

Jejeebhoy

S. J.

Santhya

Acharya

(2010). Health and social consequences of marital violence: A synthesis of evidence from India. New Delhi, India: Population Council.

17.

Karamagi

C. A.

Tumwine

J. K.

Tylleskar

Heggenhougen

(2007). Intimate partner violence and infant morbidity: Evidence of an association from a population-based study in eastern Uganda in 2003. BMC Pediatrics, 7(1), Article 34.

18.

Khatun

M. T.

Rahman

K. F.

(2012). Domestic violence against women in Bangladesh: Analysis from a socio-legal perspective. Bangladesh e-journal of Sociology, 9(2), 19-29.

19.

Koss

M. P.

Goodman

L. A.

Browne

Fitzgerald

L. F.

Keita

G. P.

Russo

N. F.

(1994). The prevalence of intimate violence. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

20.

Lim

S. S.

Vos

Flaxman

A. D.

Danaei

Shibuya

Adair-Rohani

. . . Andrews

K. G.

(2013). A comparative risk assessment of burden of disease and injury attributable to 67 risk factors and risk factor clusters in 21 regions, 1990–2010: A systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2010. The Lancet, 380, 2224-2260.

21.

Mundial

(1993). World development report 1993. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.

22.

Murray

C. J.

Lopez

A. D.

(2013). Measuring the global burden of disease. New England Journal of Medicine, 369, 448-457.

23.

National Institute of Population Research and Training (NIPORT). (2008). MEASURE Evaluation, International Centre for Diarrhoeal Disease Research, Bangladesh (ICDDR,B), and Associates for Community and Population Research (ACPR). 2006 Bangladesh Urban Health Survey. Dhaka, Bangladesh and Chapel Hill, NC, USA: NIPORT.

24.

National Institute of Population Research and Training (NIPORT). (2015). MEASURE Evaluation, International Centre for Diarrhoeal Disease Research, Bangladesh (ICDDR,B), and Associates for Community and Population Research (ACPR). 2013 Bangladesh Urban Health Survey. Dhaka, Bangladesh and Chapel Hill, NC, USA: NIPORT.

25.

Naved

R. T.

Azim

Bhuiyan

Persson

L. A.

(2006). Women’s health and domestic violence against women in Bangladesh. Health and Science Bulletin, 4(2), 1-6.

26.

Naved

R. T.

Azim

Persson

L. A.

Bhuiya

(2002). Women’s health and domestic violence against women in Bangladesh. Dhaka, Bangladesh: (A report submitted to UPHCP-ADB, Dhaka, Bangladesh).

27.

Naved

R. T.

Persson

L. A.

(2005). Factors associated with spousal physical violence against women in Bangladesh. Studies in Family Planning, 36, 289-300.

28.

Parvin

Sultana

Naved

R. T.

(2016). Disclosure and help seeking behavior of women exposed to physical spousal violence in Dhaka slums. BMC Public Health, 16(1), Article 383.

29.

Sabarwal

McCormick

M. C.

Silverman

J. G.

Subramanian

(2012). Association between maternal intimate partner violence victimization and childhood immunization in India. Journal of Tropical Pediatrics, 58, 107-113.

30.

Tjaden

Thoennes

(1998). Prevalence, incidence, and consequences of violence against women: Findings from the National Violence Against Women Survey (Research in brief). Department of Justice, Washington, DC. National Inst. of Justice.; Atlanta, GA: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (DHHS/PHS).

31.

World Health Organization. (2005). WHO multi-country study on women’s health and domestic violence against women: Summary report of initial results on prevalence, health outcomes and women’s responses. Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization.

32.

Ziaei

Naved

R. T.

Ekström

E. C.

(2014). Women’s exposure to intimate partner violence and child malnutrition: Findings from demographic and health surveys in Bangladesh. Maternal & Child Nutrition, 10, 347-359.