Bridging the Theoretical Gap: Using Sexual Script Theory to Explain the Relationship Between Pornography Use and Sexual Coercion

Abstract

Research has consistently shown a relationship between pornography use and sexually coercive behaviors, but this inquiry has yet to fully examine the theoretical mechanisms through which this relationship works. The current study will use a theory that has gained support and attention as a way to understand the relationship pornography use has with general sexual behaviors, but has not been widely used to explain its relationship with sexually coercive behaviors: the sexual script theory. In this theory, scripts are attitudes and ideas about what behavior is acceptable, desirable, and pleasurable, which exist at the societal, personal, and interpersonal levels. Using items that assess all three levels of sexual scripts, a path analysis was used to examine whether sexual scripts mediate the relationship between pornography use and sexual coercion likelihood in a sample of 463 college males. Results of the study provide further support for the theory as a way to explain the relationship between pornography use and sexual behavior, and, in particular, sexually coercive behavior. Findings from the analysis also indicate that the various levels of scripts interact with each other and work together to influence likelihood of sexual coercion, providing further insight into how sexual scripts are manifested in behavior. Finally, the results suggest that pornography use is a multidimensional construct comprised of variables extending beyond frequency of use, such as number of modalities used to view pornography. Future research should continue this line of inquiry, expanding on the operationalization of sexual scripts and pornography use, to strengthen these findings and better illuminate the theoretical understanding of the relationship between pornography use and sexual coercion.

Keywords

pornography sexual coercion sexual aggression sexual scripts

Although the debate on the nature of the relationship between pornography use and sexual coercion has lasted decades (see Fisher & Kohut, 2017), evidence consistently indicates there is a significant relationship between these two behaviors (see DeKeseredy & Corsianos, 2016). A recent meta-analysis by Wright, Tokunaga, and Kraus (2015) found that pornography use was significantly related to sexually coercive behaviors across studies including general population and college samples, men and women from different countries, as well as studies conducted before and after the advent of Internet pornography (Wright et al., 2015). Furthermore, the relationship between pornography use and sexual coercion has been consistently demonstrated among college males (D’Abreu & Krahé, 2014; Foubert, Brosi, & Bannon, 2011; Marshall, Miller, & Bouffard, 2017; Vega & Malamuth, 2007). This relationship is especially problematic in light of recent findings indicating that as many as one in five females are victims of sexual assault at some point in their college careers (Krebs et al., 2016), as well as research indicating that nearly 90% of college males report using pornography at least once in the last year (Carrol et al., 2008).

Although evidence supports the assertion that a relationship between pornography use and sexual coercion exists, there remains a gap in theoretical understanding. The existing evidence does not demonstrate the mechanism through which pornography use influences sexually coercive behaviors, only that it is related. Malamuth, Addison, and Koss (2000) attempted to address this gap by developing the confluence model, which states that hostile masculinity and sexual promiscuity interact with pornography use to influence sexually coercive behavior. Although this theory has received empirical support (Malamuth et al., 2000; Malamuth, Hald, & Koss, 2012; Vega & Malamuth, 2007), other researchers question the utility of the confluence model as a causal explanation for the relationship between pornography and sexual coercion (Baer, Kohut, & Fisher, 2015). A chief complaint made by Baer and colleagues (2015) is that this theory fails to account for already existing high levels of hostile masculinity and sexual promiscuity in men influencing pornography use, calling into question the temporal order necessary for causation.

Although the confluence model focuses on how gendered attitudes captured in hostile masculinity influence the relationship between pornography use and sexual coercion, recent research has used sexual script theory (Gagnon & Simon, 1973) to present an alternative variable that may influence this relationship: “sexual scripts.” Scripts, from this perspective, comprise conventions used to inform sexual behavior, interpersonal sexual interactions, and individual sexual desires through their interpretation (Morrison et al., 2015). Researchers using this theory posit that pornography use serves as a source of sexual scripts that influence sexual behavior. This highlights the importance of the current study, which will be one of the first to examine the explanatory power of the sexual script theory to pornography use and sexually coercive behavior. In the current study, sexually coercive behaviors were assessed by asking respondents how likely they would be to use verbal or physical coercion tactics to obtain sex with someone who is not consenting.¹ Definitions of sexual coercion tactics in the current study have been used in previous research (Marshall et al., 2017; Vega & Malamuth, 2007; Wright et al., 2015) and are provided by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDCP; 2014). The promise of findings in recent research highlighting how pornography use works through scripts to influence sexual behavior suggests that this theory be applied to the relationship between pornography use and sexually coercive behavior, in an attempt to bridge the theoretical gap.

Literature Review

Sexual Script Theory

The script perspective offers a valuable lens through which human behavior can be examined. According to Schank and Ableson (1977), scripts comprise a set of expectations that certain events signal the likelihood that a particular event will follow it. In other words, scripts “create an anticipated sequence of how certain situations might unfold” (Morrison et al., 2015, p. 656). Gagnon and Simon (1973) used the script perspective to focus on sexual behavior. Their “sexual script theory” posited that “sexual scripts are cognitive schema that instruct people how to understand and act in sexual situations” (Masters, Casey, Wells, & Morrison, 2013, p. 409). Simon and Gagnon (1998) refer to these as “cultural scripts.” Cultural scripts are adapted from media and societal representations of sexuality, and shape an individual’s perception about appropriate or realistic sexual situations (Krahe & Tomaszewska-Jerysiak, 2011; Masters et al., 2013; Simon & Gagnon, 1998). Researchers examining traditional gender roles state that these norms are perpetuated through cultural scripts assigning appropriate behavior differently to males and females (Byers, 1996; Hynie, Lydon, Cote, & Wiener, 1998; Metts & Spitzberg, 1996). For instance, male scripts tend to emphasize the initiation of sexual encounters and having a higher sex drive (Byers, 1996; Metts & Spitzerg, 1996), whereas female scripts comprise the need for emotional ties and serving as the gatekeepers for sex (Byers, 1996; Hynie et al., 1998). These traditional gender roles make up “mainstream” cultural scripts.

Cultural scripts, however, are merely beliefs that can be conjured to interpret situations and inform appropriate behaviors or desires (Dworkin & O’Sullivan, 2005). In other words, although cultural scripts represent shared beliefs and expectations, these beliefs do not always converge with an individual’s desires and behaviors (Dworkin & O’Sullivan, 2005; Masters et al., 2013). In addition to cultural scripts, Simon and Gagnon (1998) developed interpersonal and intrapsychic scripts to conceptualize the mechanism of scripting in the deployment of desires and behaviors. Interpersonal scripts provide an outlet for individuals to act out cultural scripts (Metts & Spitzerg, 1996), and guide them through the negotiation of sexual encounters (Metts & Cupach, 1989). In addition, interpersonal scripts provide an avenue for interpreting verbal and nonverbal cues (France, 2010), such as perceptions of consent (France, 2010; Frith, 2009) and pleasure (Babin, 2012). Intrapsychic scripts, according to Morrison and colleagues (2015), are a composition of interpersonal and cultural scripts that inform an individual’s own fantasies and desires. To further illuminate the three levels of scripts, Gagnon (1990) posited that intrapsychic scripts mediate the relationship between cultural scripts and interpersonal scripts. In other words, how an individual adapts cultural norms into his or her own desires influences the “acting out” of these scripts in interpersonal settings.

The sexual script theory has also been useful in understanding sexual coercion. Researchers hold that traditional gender role scripts contribute to scripts that condone sexually coercive behavior, which are referred to as “rape scripts” (Byers, 1996). According to Byers (1996), traditional gender role scripts play a role in sexual coercion through endorsing the persistence of males in obtaining sex and the playful resistance of females. A more recent study by Clark and Carroll (2008) supports this assertion. An examination of acquaintance rape scripts in a sample of males and females revealed that cultural and social forces contribute to the development of rape scripts, and that differences between male and female acquaintance rape scripts coincide with traditional gender roles scripts (Clark & Carroll, 2008). The divergence of culturally acceptable scripts and rape scripts was also evident in research by Littleton and Axsom (2003). Results of their study indicated that seduction scripts of individuals overlapped with rape scripts, suggesting that the conflation of these scripts contributes to occurrences of unacknowledged rape.

Pornography and Sexual Scripts

More than four decades ago, Gecas and Libby (1976) acknowledged the importance of pornography in the development and revision of sexual scripts. Recent empirical studies support this assertion. Research has found particular support for sexual script theory as an explanation for the relationship between pornography use and certain sexual behaviors and attitudes, such as participation in casual sex (Braithwaite, Coulson, Keddington, & Fincham, 2015), “friends with benefits” (FWB) relationships (Braithwaite, Aaron, Dowdle, Spjut, & Fincham, 2015), gendered attitudes toward women (Wright & Bae, 2015), and sexual behaviors (Bridges, Sun, Ezzell, & Johnson, 2016; Sun, Bridges, Johnson, & Ezzell, 2016; Tomaszewska & Krahe, 2016, 2018).

Braithwaite, Coulson, and colleagues (2015) applied the sexual script theory to the relationship between pornography use and risky sexual behaviors. In their sample of college males and females, they found that frequency of pornography use had a significant indirect effect on casual sexual partners through risky sexual scripts. Braithwaite, Aaron, and colleagues (2015) had similar findings in their study examining how sexual scripts mediate the relationship between pornography consumption and FWB relationships. Results of their analysis indicated that frequency of pornography use had a significant indirect effect on FWB relationships through sexual scripts. Sexual scripts in both of these studies were operationalized using items assessing sexually permissive desires, attitudes, and behaviors. In addition, both of these studies used a two-study design, allowing the researchers to replicate “these effects both cross-sectionally and longitudinally” (p. 111), providing temporal order not found in the confluence model (Baer et al., 2015). Although this evidence provides strong support for the application of sexual script theory to casual sex arrangements, researchers have also examined how pornography influences gendered attitudes.

Wright and Bae (2015) conducted a two-wave panel study consisting of general population male and female adults to examine the relationship between pornography use and nonsexual gendered attitudes. Results of their study indicated that “pornography consumption did predict interindividual over time change in gendered attitudes toward women among adults” (Wright & Bae, 2015, p. 455), meaning that higher levels of pornography consumption at Time 1 significantly predicted gendered attitudes at Time 2. This finding demonstrates further support for temporal order in the sexual script theory. In addition, Wright and Bae (2015) found that Wave 1 gender role attitudes did not predict Wave 2 gender role attitudes. This means that selective exposure to pornographic material did not explain correlations between pornography and gender role attitudes. Finally, Wright and Bae (2015) state that this study provides support for the idea that pornography use not only affects direct behavior (e.g., acting out specific acts depicted in pornography), but that pornography affects “the overarching perspective on sociality demonstrated in the depiction” (p. 457), which they refer to as higher order scripting.

Although Wright and Bae (2015) found evidence in support of the idea that pornography can influence “higher order” scripts, research has also found support for the idea that pornography can result in specific scripting effects in both college men (Sun et al., 2016) and general population men and women (Bridges et al., 2016). Sun and colleagues (2016) examined specific scripting through developing an “integration of pornography with sex” scale in a sample of 487 college men. According to Sun and colleagues (2016), the integration of pornography with sex involved viewing pornography with a partner during sex, requesting specific sexual acts performed in pornography, and role-playing scenes from pornography with a partner. Results of their study indicated that more frequent pornography use was significantly associated with higher scores on the Integration of Pornography Scale (Sun et al., 2016).

Bridges and colleagues (2016) found additional support for specific scripting effects through examining the relationship between pornography use and sexual behaviors commonly featured in pornography in a sample of general population men and women. These acts were defined as aggressor behaviors, target behaviors, and degrading behaviors. Aggressor behaviors and target behaviors were acts of aggression, such as choking, slapping, or spanking. These behaviors were labeled as aggressor if the respondent did this to a partner, or target if this was done to them. Degrading behaviors, according to Bridges and colleagues (2016), were other behaviors commonly found in pornography, such as ejaculation on the female’s face (Fritz & Paul, 2017). Consistent with their hypotheses, Bridges and colleagues (2016) found that pornography use was significantly related to a higher engagement in, as well as interest in, aggressor, target, and degrading behaviors. In addition, Bridges and colleagues (2016) note a “gendered nature” to their findings. In other words, men were significantly more likely to have engaged in the aggressor and degradative behaviors, and women were significantly more likely to have been targets of such behavior. This finding coincides with a recent study conducted by Fritz and Paul (2017) examining the scripts contained in mainstream pornography, which revealed that objectifying or degrading scripts comprised the majority of scenes in the analysis.

Finally, researchers have found support for the scripting effect of pornography on sexually coercive behaviors. Tomaszewska and Krahe (2016) examined pornography use, risky sexual scripts, and attitudes toward sexually coercive behavior in a sample of 524 Polish adolescents. Results of their study indicated that risky sexual scripts mediated the relationship between pornography use and attitudes toward sexually coercive behavior. Extending this literature further, the same researchers examined whether risky sexual scripts mediated the relationship between pornography use and sexual coercion perpetration (Tomaszewska & Krahe, 2018). As with the previous study, risky sexual scripts mediated the relationship between pornography use and sexually coercive behaviors (Tomaszewska & Krahe, 2018). The longitudinal nature of the latter study demonstrates support for a potential causal effect between pornography use, sexual scripts, and sexual coercion.

Current Study

The sexual script theory has found support in research examining the influence pornography use has on sexual behaviors (Braithwaite, Aaron, et al., 2015; Bridges et al., 2016; Sun et al., 2016; Tomaszewska & Krahe, 2018). This highlights the importance of the current study. In line with the methodology used in previous studies (Braithwaite, Aaron, et al., 2015; Tomaszewska & Krahe, 2016, 2018), this study included variables of sexual scripts in a structural equation model examining whether sexual scripts mediated the relationship between pornography use and likelihood of sexually coercive behaviors in a sample of college males. The application of sexual scripts to the relationship between pornography use and sexual coercion likelihood is not the only valuable contribution this article provided. In contrast to previous research, which only included items assessing risky sexual scripts, the operationalization of sexual scripts in the current study included all three levels of sexual scripts offered by Simon and Gagnon (1998), which allowed for the various mechanisms of each script type to be examined.

From a practical standpoint, the results of this study may provide additional knowledge on sexually coercive behaviors, specifically among college students. To properly combat sexually coercive behaviors on college campuses, a more refined theoretical understanding of the etiology of such behaviors is necessary. Pornography is a consistent correlate of sexual coercion among college males, and research indicates it is used by the majority of these individuals; but to practically address this issue, the mechanisms through which this relationship works must be understood. The sexual script theory may provide this theoretical framework.

Method

Sample

The sample in the current study contained 469 males enrolled in introductory undergraduate criminal justice or psychology classes at a university located in the southern region of the United States. Descriptive statistics for demographic information, as well as the variables of interest for this study, can be found in Table 1. The average age of the individuals in the sample was approximately 21 years (SD = 4.83 years), and the majority of the individuals identified as White (67.9%), followed by Hispanic (16.1%) and African American (16.0%). According to demographic information available at the university’s website, this sample presented an accurate representation of the student population. To address the small number of individuals in the Hispanic and African American categories, the racial/ethnic categories were collapsed into White/non-Hispanic (67.9%) and minority (32.1%) groups. Only six individuals in the sample identified themselves as homosexual, so they were excluded from the study due to the small number of individuals and the substantial differences in variables of interest. The final sample size for the analyses was 463.

Table 1.

Descriptive Statistics for Sample (N = 463).

	Percent	M (SD)	Range
Age		21.74 (4.83)	18-69
Race
White	67.90
Non-White	32.10
Self-reported likelihood of verbal coercive behavior average score		37.26 (30.69)	0-100
Self-reported likelihood of illegal coercive behavior		12.48 (20.74)	0-100
Porn modality total		0.88 (0.81)	0-4
Books	1.50
Magazines	6.40
Movies	17.90
Internet	62.70
Porn use frequency
Never (1)	35.00
Less than monthly (2)	14.00
Monthly (3)	10.20
More than once per month (4)	9.70
Weekly (5)	15.10
More than once per week (6)	10.00
Daily (7)	6.00
Cultural scripts
How realistic was the scenario in the story?		71.53 (28.78)	0-100
Intrapsychic scripts
How well can you imagine yourself as the male in the scenario?		55.11 (34.15)	0-100
Interpersonal scripts
How willing was the victim to have sex in this story?		59.41 (30.43)	0-100
How much pleasure did the victim receive in this story?		52.76 (28.30)	0-100
Rape Myth Scale		1.71 (0.49)	1.00-3.63
Sexual victimization	10.30
Alcohol use frequency
Never	19.00
Less than monthly	25.00
Monthly	9.50
More than once per month	14.40
Weekly	16.80
More than once per week	13.40
Daily	1.90

Procedure

Criminal justice students and psychology students were recruited for participation in this study. In line with institutional review board (IRB) requirements, informed consent outlining all the content of the study, including the possibility of viewing an erotic video, was provided to the students. Before completing the first portion of the survey, each student was randomly assigned to view either a 6-min erotic video (experimental group) depicting an adult male and adult female engaged in consensual sexual activities (PHE, Inc.) or a lecture video (control group) of equal length.² The criteria used in the selection of the erotic video was used in previous studies (George et al., 2009). This was part of an arousal experiment for an unrelated study, but to account for any contamination that video exposure may have had to the outcome variables, it was included as a control variable in the analyses. After watching the video, participants were presented with a vignette used in previous studies to assess sexual coercion likelihood (Bouffard & Miller, 2014; Miller, Bouffard, & DeHaan, 2017; Norris et al., 2009). The second portion of the survey containing measures of pornography use, rape myth acceptance, alcohol use, and sexual victimization was emailed to respondents on the following day, to avoid contaminating effects of the arousal manipulation on Day 1.

Measures

Dependent variables

Verbal and physical sexual coercion likelihood was assessed through items in the first portion of the survey respondents were given immediately after reading the vignette. The vignette involved a male and female who are casually acquainted meeting at a party and later returning to the female’s apartment. Once there, they begin kissing and engaging in foreplay. After this, the male tries to remove the female’s clothing, but she explicitly states that she does not want to engage in sexual behaviors with him. At this point, respondents were asked to answer items about the scenario. For verbal coercion, the two questions provided after the vignette were as follows: (a) “How likely is it that you would verbally coax her to remove her clothes?” and (b) “How likely is it that you would say things you did not mean to get her to have sex?” Physical coercion items were as follows: (a) “Would you try to get her more drunk to have sex with her?” and (b) “What do you think the chance that you would have sex with her even if she protested?” Each of these four questions could be answered on a scale of 0% to 100%, with 0% indicating they were sure they would not commit the behavior and 100% meaning they are sure they would engage in the behavior. The two verbal and two illegal coercion behavior items were averaged to create a verbal coercion (two items) and illegal coercion (two items) variable. The average Verbal Coercion Likelihood Scale score was 37.26 (SD = 30.69) and the average Illegal Coercion Likelihood Scale score was 12.48 (SD = 20.74). This operationalization of coercive strategies has been used in previous studies (Anderson & Savage, 2005; Bouffard & Miller, 2014; Marshall et al., 2017).

Pornography use

Pornography use was measured using several items designed to assess both the frequency of pornography use and the number of modalities used to view pornography. Specifically, respondents were asked how frequently they viewed pornography using the Internet, books, magazines, or movies, and answers varied from 1 = never, 2 = less than monthly, 3 = monthly, 4 = more than once per month, 5 = weekly, 6 = more than once per week, to 7 = daily. Approximately 65% of the sample reported viewing some form of pornography at least monthly. Specific percentages for each response can be found in Table 1.

For the modality variable, individuals were asked whether or not they viewed pornography using the Internet, books, magazines, or movies. These four dichotomous variables were then summed to create the modality total variable. In the current sample, the average number of modalities used was 0.88 (SD = 0.81). In addition, the percentage of individuals who reported viewing each modality is included in Table 1. Both these pornography use variables (frequency and number of modalities) were combined in the structural equation model to create a latent variable titled “pornography use.”

Mediating variables

The mediating variables included in the analyses were taken from four items on the first portion of the survey. These items were asked after the respondent answered the questions regarding their willingness to engage in each of the four sexually coercive behaviors. One of these items assessed cultural scripts, one assessed intrapsychic scripts, and two assessed interpersonal scripts. For the cultural script item, the individuals were asked how realistic they perceived the story to be. The item assessing intrapsychic scripts asked how well they could imagine themselves as the male in the story. For the two items assessing interpersonal scripts, individuals were asked the victim’s willingness to have sex in the story and how much pleasure she received in the story. These four questions could be answered on a scale ranging from 0% (not at all/no pleasure) to 100% (very much/pleasure). The average of the answers for the cultural script (realism) item was 71.53 (SD = 28.78) and the average for the intrapsychic script item (imagine self in situation) was 55.11 (SD = 34.15). The average of the answers for interpersonal script items was 59.41 (SD = 30.43) for how willing the victim was and 52.76 (SD = 28.30) for how much pleasure the woman in the story experienced.

Control variables

Table 1 contains descriptive statistics for the control variables included in the analyses. Each of the control variables in the analyses has been demonstrated as a significant correlate of sexually coercive behaviors (Bouffard & Miller, 2014; Franklin, Bouffard, & Pratt, 2012; Kingree & Thompson, 2013). The first control variable in the analyses represents participant’s responses to the Rape Myth Acceptance Scale (Lonsway & Fitzgeralds, 1995). This scale contains 19 statements of common rape myths that the participants answer with a 4-point Likert-type response. The response options were strongly disagree = 1, disagree = 2, agree = 3, and strongly agree = 4 (Lonsway & Fitzgeralds, 1995). For the current study, the average score for all 19 items was used, and the internal reliability of the Rape Myth Acceptance Scale in this sample was excellent (α = .91), with item factor loadings ranging from .28 to .72. For interpretative purposes, a higher score on this scale indicates higher rape myth acceptance.

The prior sexual victimization control variable was measured using three questions from the Sexual Experiences Survey (Koss et al., 2007) that were modified for the purpose of this study. These questions asked whether the individual had experienced any of several forms of prior sexual victimization. Specifically, respondents were asked whether they had experienced forced anal sex, oral sex, or frotterism (i.e., unwanted touching). For the analyses in this study, sexual victimization was coded dichotomously, with respondents who reported never experiencing any of these forms of sexual victimization (no sexual victimization = 0) and respondents who reported experiencing at least one type of sexual victimization (sexual victimization = 1).

Frequency of alcohol use was also used as a control variable. To measure alcohol use frequency, respondents were asked to choose an answer that represented how often they drink alcohol, with choices ranging from never = 1, less than monthly = 2, monthly = 3, more than once per month = 4, weekly = 5, more than once per week = 6, to daily = 7.

The final control variable for the study was an indicator of whether each respondent had experienced an arousal manipulation as part of an unrelated aspect of the original data collection procedure (i.e., to assess the impact of arousal on sexual coercion decision making). Approximately half of the students had viewed a 6-min criminal justice lecture video (control group = 0) and the other students viewed a 6-min erotic video (experimental group = 1). It is important to include the arousal manipulation in the analyses for the current study, to control for any contamination effects exposure to the erotic film may have caused (Bouffard & Miller, 2014).

Analytic Plan

First, bivariate statistics were used to assess whether significant relationships existed between the independent, dependent, mediating, and control variables. To answer the research question proposed, whether sexual script variables mediate the relationship between pornography use and sexual coercion likelihood, a structural equation modeling technique was employed. The proposed model can be found in Figure 1. The two pornography variables were used to create a latent variable titled “pornography use,” and the sexual script variables were placed as mediating variables between pornography use and the sexual coercion likelihood variables. All the control variables (rape myth acceptance, sexual victimization, alcohol use, and arousal manipulation) were included in the model as well. It should be noted that the endogenous variables were not normally distributed, which is typical of likelihood data captured in percentages. To address this violation of the normal distribution of endogenous variables, the structural equation model was estimated using the asymptotic distribution free model, as well as the maximum likelihood model, to see whether any differences in model fit statistics exist between them.

Figure 1.

Proposed path model of pornography use’s impact on sexual coercion likelihood as mediated by sexual scripts and victim perception.

Results

Bivariate Analysis

The correlation results (see Table 2) indicate that significant positive relationships existed between the pornography use variables and the sexual script variables, as well as the sexual coercion likelihood variables. Furthermore, significant relationships existed between the mediating variables and verbal coercion likelihood. For illegal coercion likelihood, however, all mediating variables except for the cultural script item were significantly correlated. Finally, all the control variables were significantly correlated with verbal coercion, and all but one of the control variables (sexual victimization) were significantly correlated with illegal coercion likelihood.

Table 2.

Correlation Table of Independent, Dependent, Mediating, and Control Variables (N = 463).

	1	2	3	4	5	6	7	8	9	10	11
Verbal coercion	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—
Illegal coercion	.525**	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—
Modality total	.259**	.209**	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—
Frequency of use	.211**	.131**	.634**	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—
Story realistic (cultural)	.118**	−.016	.077	.061	—	—	—	—	—	—	—
Imagine self (intrapsychic)	.346**	.227**	.241**	.187**	.438**	—	—	—	—	—	—
Victim willing (interpersonal)	.423**	.290**	.136**	.091*	.118*	.313**	—	—	—	—	—
Victim pleasure (interpersonal)	.280**	.244**	.129**	.077	.189**	.285**	.594**	—	—	—	—
Rape myth acceptance	.277**	.291**	.137**	.138**	−.071	.149**	.241**	.145**	—	—	—
Alcohol use frequency	.166**	.105*	.236**	.240**	.069	.166**	.093*	.080	.109	—	—
Arousal condition	.086*	.094*	.013	.003	−.048	.047	.035	.049	.029	−.013	—
Sexual victimization	.104*	−.062	.110*	.086	.033	.103*	.068	.064	.056	−.065	.072

p < .05. **p < .01.

Multivariate Path Models

Although the bivariate analysis indicated that significant relationships existed between the variables of interest, to test whether sexual script variables mediate the relationship between pornography use and sexual coercion likelihood, a structural equation modeling technique was used. These models were estimated using Mplus Version 8.0. The first model tested in these analyses was the model proposed in Figure 1. According to the model fit statistics, however, this model did not fit the data well. As a standard, the root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA) should not exceed 0.06 and the comparative fit index (CFI) should exceed 0.90. The initial model had a satisfactory CFI but the RMSEA was above the desired level (CFI = 0.91, RMSEA = 0.09). To determine what model would best fit these data, modification indices were consulted. The resulting model can be found in Figure 2.

Figure 2.

Final path model of pornography use’s impact on sexual coercion likelihood as mediated by sexual scripts.

As the figure indicates, the cultural script item and one interpersonal script item (how much pleasure did the victim experience) were removed from the model to improve fit. The paths in the mediation model were changed as well. Rather than the intrapsychic script item and the first interpersonal script item (how willing was the victim) acting as mediators between pornography use and sexual coercion likelihood, this model suggested that intrapsychic scripts and interpersonal scripts mediate the relationship between pornography use and sexual coercion likelihood, and interpersonal scripts mediate the relationship between intrapsychic scripts and sexual coercion likelihood. The model fit statistics reveal that this model fits these data well, with both the RMSEA and CFI suggesting a good fit (CFI = 1.00, RMSEA = 0.00).³

For the latent pornography use variable, results of the standardized path coefficients indicate that both frequency of use and number of modalities have statistically significant factor loadings of at least .60. It should also be noted that the unstandardized factor loadings are statistically significant. Significant relationships were found between all the variables in the model. For direct effects, pornography use is significantly related to intrapsychic scripts (standard effect = 0.20, p < .00), verbal coercion likelihood (standard effect = 0.14, p < .00), and illegal coercion likelihood (standard effect = 0.14, p = .01). Intrapsychic scripts are significantly related to interpersonal scripts (standard effect = 0.25, p < .00), verbal coercion likelihood (standard effect = 0.18, p < .00), and illegal coercion likelihood (standard effect = 0.09, p = .04). Finally, interpersonal scripts are significantly related to verbal coercion likelihood (standard effect = 0.31, p < .00) and illegal coercion likelihood (standard effect = 0.22, p < .00). In reference to the research question for this study, there were also significant indirect effects. Results of the model indicate that pornography use has a significant indirect effect on both verbal (standard effect = 0.05, p < .00) and illegal (standard effect = 0.03, p = .01) coercion, as well as interpersonal scripts (standard effect = 0.05, p < .00). This indicates that, in answer to the research question, sexual scripts partially mediate the relationship between pornography use and sexual coercion likelihood. A result that was not anticipated in the research question, however, indicates that intrapsychic scripts fully mediate the relationship between pornography use and interpersonal scripts.⁴ Furthermore, results indicate that intrapsychic scripts have a significant indirect effect on both verbal (standard effect = 0.05, p < .00) and illegal (standard effect = 0.05, p < .00) coercion likelihood through interpersonal scripts, indicating that intrapsychic scripts have a significant effect on sexual coercion likelihood through interpersonal scripts.

Discussion

The current study sought to apply the sexual script theory (Gagnon & Simon, 1973) to the relationship between pornography use and sexual coercion in an attempt to explain this consistent association found in previous research. Scripts provide conventions informing sexual behavior, interpersonal sexual interactions, and individual sexual desires. The current study examined whether pornography provides a source of these conventions. In addition, this study used items assessing cultural, intrapsychic, and interpersonal scripts, to provide a complete examination of the theory. Cultural scripts comprise beliefs regarding the appropriateness or likelihood of sexual behaviors or situations, intrapsychic scripts involve an individual’s desires or fantasies, and interpersonal scripts entail how an individual negotiates sexual encounters. Results of the study provide implications for each of these inquiries.

The sexual script theory has been given more attention in recent years as a way to explain certain effects pornography use has on its consumers. The results of this study support those of previous studies (Braithwaite, Aaron, et al., 2015; Braithwaite, Coulson, et al., 2015; Tomaszewska & Krahe, 2018), providing further evidence for the sexual script theory. In addition, these studies highlight the theory’s applicability to the relationship between pornography use and a multitude of sexual behaviors, setting it apart from other theories attempting to explain the relationship between pornography use and sexual coercion. Other theories, such as the confluence model (Malamuth et al., 2000), only focus on the relationship between pornography use and sexual coercion. As a theory is applied to a wider variety of behavior, further support is contributed. Although the current study may not completely “bridge the theoretical gap” in research on pornography use and sexual coercion, it contributes further evidence that the sexual script theory may provide this route. Results of the analyses also demonstrate how each level of scripts works to influence behavior.

The final path model indicated that intrapsychic scripts had a significant indirect effect on sexual coercion likelihood through interpersonal scripts. These results provide two implications for how these scripts interact to influence sexual coercion likelihood. First, support is given to the notion that an individual’s intrapsychic scripts directly influence interpersonal scripts (France, 2010; Gagnon, 1990). In the context of the current study, this means that the way an individual imagines a certain sexual situation playing out in his or her life directly influences his or her ability to assess verbal and nonverbal cues of consent. Researchers have acknowledged the role intrapsychic scripts play in acting out interpersonal scripts, and this study demonstrates this in the context of perceptions of consent. Second, this model shows that intrapsychic scripts influence behavior through interpersonal scripts. Specific to the current study, this means individuals who perceive the verbal and nonverbal cues of the victim in the story as communicating consent are more likely to use coercive tactics to obtain sex. Discussions of sexual script theory have described interpersonal scripts as “a venue for performing . . . scripts” (France, 2010, p. 299). Results of the study support this idea, and extend it by providing support for the influence intrapsychic scripts exert on sexual coercion through interpersonal scripts.

The final model did not include the cultural script variable. Simon and Gagnon’s (1998) work provides further insight into why this item did not fit the data well. They state that cultural scripts exist more as abstract guidelines that inform interpersonal and intrapsychic scripts. Building on this concept, Masters and colleagues (2013) state that “sites of disjuncture between cultural and inter- or intrapersonal sexual scripts” exists, indicating that cultural scripts are not always exactly adapted by individuals (p. 410). Another explanation for this finding could be that pornography itself may serve as a cultural script through which intrapsychic and interpersonal scripts are developed and refined. Weinberg, Williams, Kleiner, and Irizarry (2010) state that pornography can serve not only as a source of sexual education for the sexually inexperienced, but a way for the sexually experienced to expand their range of sexual behaviors. Future research should examine the framework formulated by the current study. If these findings are supported moving forward, this could provide practical implications for combatting sexually coercive behaviors on college campuses. For instance, some campus sexual assault prevention programs focus on reducing rape myth acceptance and increasing awareness to encourage bystander intervention. These programs could be further improved by raising awareness of the potentially harmful scripts promoted in some pornographic content.

One finding that was not anticipated at the outset of this study, was the result that pornography use represented a latent variable. The final structural equation model indicated that both frequency of use and number of modalities significantly loaded onto a single factor. Although research has typically used various observed variables of pornography use, no previous research has attempted to combine these variables into a latent variable. Busby, Chiu, Olsen, and Willoughby (2017) state that the definition of pornography is a multidimensional construct, and results of this study indicate that the same may be true for the definition of pornography use. Future research should examine what aspects of pornography use comprise this potential latent variable and whether there may be multiple latent variables of pornography use.

It should be noted, that the results of the structural equation model indicated that the script variables partially mediated the relationship between pornography use and sexual coercion likelihood. There was still significant variance in sexual coercion likelihood that was directly explained by pornography use. This could either mean that there is still a unique effect that pornography use has on sexual coercion likelihood, or that the script items used in this study were unable to capture all aspects of the type of scripts that may be influential in accounting for the additional variance. Although the current study included all the levels of scripts posited by Simon and Gagnon (1998), one of the limitations of the current study is that only four items of scripts were included. Future research should expand on this methodology by creating a comprehensive scale of sexual scripts with multiple items assessing all three levels of scripts. Research capturing a broader operationalization of scripts will not only offer a better examination of the mediating effect sexual scripts have been found to have with pornography use and sexual behaviors but also can examine whether certain types of scripts prove to be more important in this relationship.

Other than the number of sexual script items, additional limitations do exist in this study. The operationalization of pornography use did not account for the specific content of pornography typically viewed by each respondent, which has been found to be associated with sexual coercion behaviors (Foubert et al., 2011; Wright et al., 2015). Future studies assessing the explanatory power of sexual script theory should include measures of the specific content of pornography used, to strengthen this line of research. In addition, other empirically supported correlates of sexual coercion among college students, such as fraternity membership (Franklin et al., 2012; Kingree & Thompson, 2013) and athlete status (Martin, 2016), were not included in this study. The final limitation for the variables involved the outcome variable. Sexual coercion was assessed through self-reported likelihood of committing sexually coercive behaviors, which may not represent decision making in the moment for some individuals. Regarding the sample, it should be noted that the study contained a sample of heterosexual males at a college in the rural Southern United States that was predominately White. This further limits the generalizability of the findings. Future studies in this line of research should include more diverse samples to expand the generalizability of the findings.

In conclusion, the results of this study provide further support for the sexual script theory (Gagnon & Simon, 1973) as a theoretical framework through which the association of pornography use with certain sexual behaviors and attitudes can be explained. This study extended the literature further by applying it specifically to sexually coercive behaviors, as well as offering a model that explained how various scripts interact to influence sexual behavior. In addition, findings indicated that variables of pornography use represent a latent variable, which offers implications for the operationalization of pornography use moving forward. As researchers bridge the theoretical gap that exists in the research on pornography use and sexual coercion, policy makers and practitioners may be able to utilize this information to identify those for whom pornography use may be problematic, so that preventive programs, treatment, and interventions can address problematic pornography use for these individuals.

Footnotes

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

ORCID iD

Ethan A. Marshall

Notes

Author Biographies

Ethan A. Marshall, MA, is a doctoral student at Sam Houston State University who is currently pursuing his PhD in criminal justice and criminology. His research interests include scale development and sexual deviance, specifically pertaining to female sexual offenders and the relationship between pornography and sexual coercion.

Holly A. Miller, PhD, is the associate dean of academic programs and professor in the College of Criminal Justice at Sam Houston State University. Her teaching, research, and consulting interests include psychological assessment, malingered mental illness, psychopathy, offender risk/need assessment, and the assessment and treatment of sexual offenders.

Jeffrey A. Bouffard, PhD, is a professor in the Department of Sociology at Iowa State University. His research interests include offender decision making, specifically the role of emotion within a rational choice framework, as well as the impacts of social and self-control on decision making. In addition, he has a strong research interest in the operation and effectiveness of various community-based correctional programs (e.g., prisoner reentry) and other efforts to rehabilitate offenders (e.g., drug courts, driving under the influence [DUI] courts, mental health courts). He has published more than 50 peer-reviewed articles on criminological theories, and on the implementation and effectiveness of adult and juvenile offender treatment programs.

References

Anderson

P. B.

Savage

J. S.

(2005). Social, legal and institutional context of heterosexual aggression by college women. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse, 6, 130-140.

Babin

E. A.

(2012). An examination of predictors of nonverbal and verbal communication of pleasure during sex and sexual satisfaction. Journal of Social and Personal Relationship, 30, 271-292. doi:10.1177/0265407512454523

Baer

J. L.

Kohut

Fisher

W. A.

(2015). Is pornography use associated with anti-woman sexual aggression? Re-examining the confluence model with third variable considerations. The Canadian Journal of Human Sexuality, 24, 160-173.

Bouffard

J. A.

Miller

H. A.

(2014). The role of sexual arousal and overperception of sexual intent within the decision to engage in sexual coercion. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 29, 1967-1986. doi:10.1177/0886260513515950

Braithwaite

S. R.

Aaron

S. C.

Dowdle

K. K.

Spjut

Fincham

F. D.

(2015). Does pornography consumption increase participation in friends with benefits relationships? Sexuality & Culture, 19, 513-532. doi:10.1007/s12119-015-9275-4

Braithwaite

S. R.

Coulson

Keddington

Fincham

F. D.

(2015). The influence of pornography on sexual scripts and hooking up among emerging adults in college. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 44, 111-123.

Bridges

A. J.

Sun

C. F.

Ezzell

M. B.

Johnson

(2016). Sexual scripts and the sexual behavior of men and women who use pornography. Sexualization, Media, & Society, 2(4), 983-994. doi:10.1177/2374623816668275

Busby

D. M.

Chiu

Olsen

J. A.

Willoughby

B. J.

(2017). Evaluating the dimensionality of pornography. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 46, 1723-1731. doi:10.1007/s10508-017-0983-8

Byers

E. S.

(1996). Sexual coercion in dating relationships. New York, NY: Haworth.

10.

Carrol

J. S.

Padilla-Walker

L. M.

Nelson

L. J.

Olson

C. D.

Barry

C. M.

Madsen

S. D.

(2008). Generation XXX: Pornography acceptance and use among emerging adults. Journal of Adolescent Research, 23, 6-30. doi:10.1177/0743558407306348

11.

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2014). Sexual violence surveillance. Atlanta, GA: Author.

12.

Clark

M. D.

Carroll

M. H.

(2008). Acquaintance rape scripts of women and men: Similarities and differences. Sex Roles, 58, 616-625. doi:10.1007/s11199-007-9373-3

13.

D’Abreu

L. F.

Krahé

(2014). Predicting sexual aggression in male college students in Brazil. Psychology of Men & Masculinity, 15, 152-162.

14.

DeKeseredy

W. S.

Corsianos

(2016). Violence against women in pornography. New York, NY: Routledge.

15.

Dworkin

S. L.

O’Sullivan

(2005). Actual versus desired initiation patterns among a sample of college men: Tapping disjunctures within traditional male sexual scripts. The Journal of Sex Research, 42, 50-158.

16.

Fisher

W. A.

Kohut

(2017). Pornography viewing: Keep calm and carry on. The Journal of Sexual Medicine, 14, 320-322. doi:10.1016/j.jsxm.2017.01.003

17.

Foubert

J. D.

Brosi

M. W.

Bannon

(2011). Pornography viewing among fraternity men: Effects on bystander intervention, rape myth acceptance and behavioral intent to commit sexual assault. Sexual Addiction & Compulsivity, 18, 212-231.

18.

France

B. H.

(2010). What verbal and non-verbal communication cues lead to sex? An analysis of the traditional sexual script. Communication Quarterly, 58, 297-318.

19.

Franklin

Bouffard

Pratt

(2012). Sexual assault on the college campus fraternity affiliation, male peer support, and low self-control. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 39, 1457-1480.

20.

Frith

(2009). Sexual scripts, sexual refusals, and rape. In Horvath

Brown

(Eds.), Rape: Challenging contemporary thinking (pp. 99-122). Milton Park, UK: Willan.

21.

Fritz

Paul

(2017). From orgasms to spanking: A content analysis of the agentic and objectifying sexual scripts in feminist, for women, and mainstream pornography. Sex Roles, 77, 639-652.

22.

Gagnon

J. H.

(1990). The explicit and implicit use of the scripting perspective in sex research. Annual Review of Sex Research, 1, 1-43.

23.

Gagnon

J. H.

Simon

(1973). Sexual conduct: The social sources of human sexuality. Chicago, IL: Aldine Publishing Company.

24.

Gecas

Libby

(1976). Sexual behavior as symbolic interaction. The Journal of Sex Research, 12(1), 33-49.

25.

George

W. H.

Davis

K. C.

Norris

Heiman

J. R.

Stoner

S. A.

Schacht

R. L.

. . . Kajumulo

K. F.

(2009). Indirect effects of acute alcohol intoxication on sexual risk taking: The roles of subjective and physiological sexual arousal. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 38, 498-513.

26.

Hynie

Lydon

J. E.

Cote

Weiner

(1998). Relational scripts and women’s condom use: The importance of internalized norms. The Journal of Sex Research, 35, 370-380.

27.

Kingree

J. B.

Thompson

M. P.

(2013). Fraternity membership and sexual aggression: An examination of mediators of the association. Journal of American College Health, 61, 213-221.

28.

Koss

M. P.

Abbey

Campbell

Cook

Norris

Testa

. . . White

(2007). Revising the SES: A collaborative process to improve assessment of sexual aggression and victimization. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 31, 357-370.

29.

Krahe

Tomaszewska-Jerysiak

(2011). Sexual scripts and the acceptance of sexual aggression in polish adolescents. European Journal of Developmental Psychology, 8, 697-712.

30.

Krebs

Lindquist

Berzofksy

Shook-Sa

Peterson

Planty

Stroop

(2016). Campus Climate Survey validation study final technical report. Department of Justice. Retrieved from http://www.bjs.gov/content/pub/pdf/ccsvsftr.pdf

31.

Littleton

H. L.

Axsom

(2003). Rape and seduction scripts of university students: Implications for rape attributions and unacknowledged rape. Sex Roles, 49, 465-475.

32.

Lonsway

K. A.

Fitzgeralds

L. F.

(1995). Attitudinal antecedents of rape myth acceptance: A theoretical and empirical reexamination. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 68, 704-711.

33.

Malamuth

N. M.

Addison

Koss

(2000). Pornography and sexual aggression: Are there reliable effects and can we understand them? Annual Review of Sex Research, 11, 26-91.

34.

Malamuth

N. M.

Hald

G. M.

Koss

(2012). Pornography, individual differences in risk and men’s acceptance of violence against women in a representative sample. Sex Roles, 66, 427-439. doi:10.1007/s11199-011-0082-6

35.

Marshall

E. A.

Miller

H. A.

Bouffard

J. A.

(2017). Crossing the threshold from porn use to porn problem: Frequency and modality of pornography use as predictors of sexually coercive behaviors. Journal of Interpersonal Violence. Advanced online publication. doi:10.1177/0886260517743549

36.

Martin

P. P.

(2016). The rape prone culture of academic contexts. Gender & Society, 30(1), 30-43.

37.

Masters

N. T.

Casey

Wells

E. A.

Morrison

D. M.

(2013). Sexual scripts among young heterosexually active men and women: Conformity and change. The Journal of Sex Research, 50, 409-420.

38.

Metts

Cupach

W. H.

(1989). The role of communication in sexuality. In McKinney

Sprecher

(Eds.), Human sexuality: The societal and interpersonal context (pp. 139-161). Norwood, NJ: Ablex Publishing Corporation.

39.

Metts

Spitzerg

B. H.

(1996). Sexual communication in interpersonal contexts: A script-based approach. In Burleson

B. R.

Kunkel

A. W.

(Eds.), Communication yearbook (Vol. 19, pp. 49-91). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

40.

Miller

H. A.

Bouffard

J. A.

DeHaan

C. A.

(2017). The role of psychopathic traits in female sexual coercion. Violence and Victims, 32, 479-492.

41.

Morrison

D. M.

Masters

N. T.

Wells

E. A.

Casey

Beadnell

Hoppe

M. J.

(2015). “He enjoys giving her pleasure”: Diversity and complexity in young men’s sexual scripts. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 44, 655-668. doi:10.1007/s10508-014-0354-7

42.

Norris

Stoner

S. A.

Hessler

D. M.

Zawacki

George

W. H.

Morrison

D. M.

Davis

K. C.

(2009). Cognitive mediation of alcohol’s effects on women’s in-the-moment sexual decision making. Heath Psychology, 28(1), 20-28.

43.

Schank

R. C.

Ableson

R. P.

(1977). Scripts, plans, goals and understanding: An inquiry into human knowledge structures. Oxford, UK: Lawrence Erlbaum.

44.

Simon

Gagnon

J. H.

(1998). Sexual scripts. In Parker

Aggleton

(Eds.), Culture, society & sexuality (pp. 29-38). London, England: Routledge.

45.

Sullivan

L. F.

(2005). Sexual coercion in dating relationships: Conceptual and methodological issues. Sexual and Relationship Therapy, 20(1), 3-11. doi:10.1080/14681990500037246

46.

Sun

Bridges

Johnson

J. A.

Ezzell

M. B.

(2016). Pornography and the male sexual script: An analysis of consumption and sexual relations. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 45, 983-994. doi:10.1007/s10508-014-0391-2

47.

Tomaszewska

Krahe

(2016). Attitudes towards sexual coercion by polish high school students: Links with risky sexual scripts, pornography use, and religiosity. Journal of Sexual Aggression, 22, 291-307.

48.

Tomaszewska

Krahe

(2018). Predictors of sexual aggression victimization and perpetration among polish university students: A longitudinal study. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 47, 493-505. doi:10.1007/10508-016-0823-2

49.

Vega

Malamuth

N. M.

(2007). Predicting sexual aggression: The role of pornography in the context of general and specific risk factors. Aggressive Behavior, 33, 104-117.

50.

Weinberg

M. S.

Williams

C. J.

Kleiner

Irizarry

(2010). Pornography, normalization, and empowerment. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 39, 1389-1401. doi:10.1007/s10508-009-9592-5

51.

Wright

P. J.

Bae

(2015). A national prospective study of pornography consumption and gendered attitudes toward women. Sexuality & Culture, 19, 444-463. doi:10.1007/s12119-014-9264-z

52.

Wright

P. J.

Tokunaga

R. S.

Kraus

(2015). A meta-analysis of pornography consumption and actual acts of sexual aggression in general population studies. Journal of Communication, 66, 183-205. doi:10.1111/jcom.12201