Beyond the Role of Interpersonal Violence in Predicting Negative Affective Conditions in Adults: An Examination of Hope Components in Chinese College Students

Abstract

With the growth of positive psychology during the past two decades, increased research has been focused on identifying human virtues that not only foster well-being but also act as positive processes that mitigate the impact of life adversities. Thus, it is useful to examine how positive processes, such as hope, may impact individuals’ psychological adjustment following adversities. This study investigated the relationships among interpersonal violence, hope, as a key human strength, and negative affect conditions in a large sample (N = 737) of Chinese male and female (N_female = 409) college students. Participants completed measures assessing prior exposure to interpersonal violence, levels of both hope components (i.e., agency and pathways), negative affect, depressive symptoms, and suicidal ideation. Results from correlational analyses showed that exposure to interpersonal violence was positively and hope was negatively correlated with negative affective conditions. However, hope agency was more strongly correlated with those outcomes than hope pathways. In addition, three separate hierarchical regression analyses indicated that after accounting for demographics (i.e., age and sex) and interpersonal violence, within hope components, only hope agency remained as strong concurrent predictors of negative affective conditions. The present findings in this Chinese sample are consistent with those obtained from Turkey and the United States samples, adding evidence to the more robust role of hope, and hope agency in particular, in predicting negative psychological adjustment associated with interpersonal violence. Efforts made to address the absence of hope agency may be particularly important in future attempts to mitigate negative affective conditions linked to interpersonal violence among Chinese college students.

Keywords

interpersonal violence hope negative affective conditions Chinese college students

Interpersonal violence, which refers to violence between individuals (World Health Organization [WHO], 2002), and ranks among the leading causes of morbidity and mortality (Coid et al., 2006; Fazel et al., 2018), remains a prevalent and serious public health concern. It represents the 19th most common cause of death and accounts for approximately 410,000 deaths per year globally (Wang et al., 2016). Moreover, tens of thousands of people around the world are victims of nonfatal violence every day (WHO, 2014). Moreover, about one third of violence victims experience more than one type of violence in their lifetime (Acierno et al., 2000; Saunders, 2003). Based on findings from studies conducted worldwide, exposure to interpersonal violence is associated with a series of severe and long-lasting consequences in both males and females, not limited to societal issues (e.g., crime and further violence; Wongtongkam et al., 2016), but also negative mental health outcomes, such as depression, anxiety, post-traumatic stress disorder, substance use disorders, and other psychiatric comorbidities (Cisler et al., 2012; Gelaye et al., 2009; Han et al., 2016; Iverson et al., 2013; Martín-Baena et al., 2016; Priolo-Filho & Williams, 2019). Notably, one unfortunate response to interpersonal violence is suicidal behavior, suggested by the well-established link between interpersonal violence and suicidal ideation and suicide attempts (e.g., MacIsaac et al., 2018; McLaughlin et al., 2012). Given the evidence of how exposure to interpersonal violence poses numerous threats to one’s psychological adjustment, it becomes vital to test the importance of positive psychological variables to examine whether such variables would be useful in predicting negative affective conditions, above and beyond interpersonal violence.

One such positive psychological variable that might be of particular importance in predicting negative affective conditions beyond interpersonal violence is hope. According to Snyder et al. (1991), hope is a cognitive set of goal-directed expectations that consists of two distinct yet related components, namely hope agency and hope pathways. Hope agency is a cognitive appraisal of one’s ability and determination to achieve a goal (e.g., “I can do this”), whereas hope pathways is one’s perceived capability at generating and identifying practical ways to meet a desired goal (e.g., “I will find a way to get this done”). Agentic thinking represents the self-motivational thoughts about beginning to move along a pathway and continuing to progress along; and pathways thinking involves thoughts of generating at least one, and often more, workable route to fulfill desired goals (Snyder et al., 2002, p. 258). Previous studies have consistently established a positive relationship between hope and psychological well-being (e.g., positive emotions; Bailey et al., 2007) and an inverse relationship to negative psychological adjustment (e.g., depression; Snyder et al., 1991). For instance, Stoyles et al. (2015) found that among first-year university students, hope was positively related to purpose in life and their perceived ability to cope effectively with life challenges. In another study, noteworthy, Chang et al. (2019) found that hope agency, but not hope pathways, mediated with positive association between positive affectivity and life satisfaction in Chinese college students. On the contrary, in a study of Chinese university students, rumination and depressive symptoms were negatively correlated with hope. In group with high levels of hope, the effect of rumination on depression became nonsignificant (Sun et al., 2014). Importantly, among individuals exposed to interpersonal violence, hope has also been found to be correlated with greater life satisfaction and central to foster resilience in intimate partner violence (IPV) survivors (Munoz, Brady, & Brown, 2017; Munoz, Hellman, & Brunk, 2017). Thus, these findings support the notion that hope might be a cognitive state conducive to individuals’ psychological well-being especially in the presence of adverse life events.

A major tenet of Snyder et al.’s (1991) hope theory is that both hope components are, in general, positively associated with the perception of goal attainment and represent equally important processes in improving physical and psychological health. Indeed, more recently, researchers have developed interventions that aim to nurture hopeful thinking in those who have experienced interpersonal violence (e.g., Hellman & Gwinn, 2017). The resulting increased level of hope and other psychological strengths (e.g., grit, optimism) provide promising evidence for the benefits of hope-based interventions. Interestingly, two studies, which explored the unique role of each hope component, revealed that only hope agency mediated the link between IPV and suicidal risk in Turkish females (Muyan & Chang, 2016) and the link between sexual assault victimization and depressive symptoms in American females (Chang et al., 2017). Such findings that are inconsistent with Snyder et al.’s (1991) hope theory, in addition to the scarcity in the literature, warrant further research to determine the unique roles of hope agency and pathways in the prediction of negative affective conditions associated with interpersonal violence. Furthermore, understanding how each hope component is uniquely associated with such outcomes can inform researchers and therapists of the focus to which they should devote effort when creating and implementing interventions.

As argued by Henrich et al. (2010), there is a dearth of studies concerned with non-WEIRD populations (i.e., Western, Educated, Industrialized, Rich, Democratic; e.g., Easterners) across different areas of psychology. Research on interpersonal violence is no exception, where despite a growing literature capturing some of the current complexity of interpersonal violence in developed countries, studies on this topic in the Chinese context are still lacking (Zhang et al., 2015). Noteworthy, although a few existing studies on interpersonal violence were conducted in Hong Kong (e.g., K. L. Chan, 2012), there were still limited findings yielded from mainland China. Despite their geographic proximity, and the fact that a majority of the Hong Kong population is ethnically Chinese and/or the offspring of immigrants from China, a long history of colonial rule by the British may have imparted a unique cultural value system embraced by Hong Kong people that is likely to be distinct from the mainland (M. Chan, 2017). We believe that Hong Kong people and mainland Chinese should be studied separately in psychological research; otherwise, some potential nuances may not be elicited if findings from one area are assumed to be generalizable to the other. Accordingly, this study was conducted to address these gaps in a college student population from mainland China.

Purpose of the Present Study

Given these considerations, this study aimed to examine if hope was significantly associated with negative affective conditions after accounting for the variance explained by demographic factors and interpersonal violence in a sample of Chinese college students. Relatedly, we were also interested in determining which hope component, agency or pathways, accounted for more variance in negative affective conditions.

Considering the detrimental impact of violence exposure found globally (e.g., Iverson et al., 2013; Martín-Baena et al., 2016), we first hypothesized that interpersonal violence would be significantly associated with negative affective conditions in the present Chinese sample. Next, based on past findings that point to the positive role of hope against the negative impact of adverse experiences on psychological adjustment (e.g., Munoz, Brady, & Brown, 2017; Munoz, Hellman, & Brunk, 2017; Snyder et al., 1991), we expected hope to be a significant concurrent predictor of negative affective conditions above and beyond age, sex, and exposure to interpersonal violence. Finally, consistent with previous studies suggesting the stronger role of hope agency in accounting for relationships between interpersonal violence and negative psychological adjustment (Chang et al., 2017; Muyan & Chang, 2016), we predicted hope agency, in contrast to hope pathways, to emerge as a stronger predictor of our outcomes of interest.

Method

Participants and Procedure

Approval for the study was obtained from the Institutional Review Board of the university where the study was conducted prior to data collection. A total of 737 college students (328 males and 409 females) attending a large introductory psychology class in a public university in Beijing, China volunteered for the study to fulfill a course requirement. Ages ranged from 16 to 24 (M = 18.42; SD = 0.73). All participants were given the present set of measures in random order, which have been previously translated into Chinese and validated. All participants signed consent forms and were informed that all test data would be kept strictly confidential. Participants were not made aware of the purpose of the study until after they had completed all measures.

Measures

Interpersonal violence

We used the HITS (Hurt, Insult, Threaten, & Scream; Sherin et al., 1998), a short domestic violence screening tool composed of four items (i.e., “How often does your partner: physically hurt you, insult you or talk down to you, threaten you with harm, and scream or curse at you?” Participants responded to each item on a 5-point frequency format, ranging from 1 (never) to 5 (frequently). Higher total scores indicate higher incidence of interpersonal violence.

Hope

We used the Hope Scale (HS; Snyder et al., 1991) to assess for individual differences in hope. The HS includes 12 items with responses measured on an 8-point scale, ranging from 1 (definitely false) to 8 (definitely true). Among the 12 items, four items assess hope agency (e.g., “I energetically pursue my goals”), four assess hope pathways (e.g., “There are lots of ways around any problem”), with the remaining four as filler items. The total hope score is the sum of the scores on agency and pathway subscales, with higher total scores indicating greater hope.

Negative affective conditions

Three measures were used to assess for negative affective conditions. First, negative affect (e.g., irritable) was measured by the 10-item Negative Affect subscale in the Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS; Watson et al., 1988). Participants rated how they feel in general for each negative affect (i.e., “Indicate to what extent you generally feel this way, that is, how you feel on the average”) on a 5-point scale ranging from 1 (very slightly or not at all) to 5 (extremely). Higher scores represent greater negative affect. Next, depressive symptoms were assessed by the 21-item Beck Depression Inventory (BDI; Beck et al., 1961). Within each item, participants selected one out of four statements (i.e., 0 = I do not feel sad to 3 = I am so sad or unhappy that I can’t stand it) that best describes the way they have been feeling during the past 2 weeks. Higher total scores indicate more severe depressive symptoms. Finally, the 5-item Frequency of Suicidal Ideation Inventory (FSII; Chang & Chang, 2016) was used to assess for suicidal ideation. Participants indicated how frequently they have entertained suicidal thoughts over the past year (e.g., “How often have you wished you did not exist?”) using a 5-point scale ranging from 1 (never) to 5 (almost every day). Higher scores on the FSII are indicative of greater suicidal ideation.

Results

Correlations, means, standard deviations, and score ranges for all study measures are presented in Table 1. All correlations, except for ones between interpersonal violence and both hope components, were statistically significant and in the expected directions. Specifically, interpersonal violence was strongly correlated with all three negative affective conditions, namely, negative affect (r = .22, p < .001), depressive symptoms (r = .28, p < .001), and suicidal ideation (r = .37, p < .001), but was not correlated with hope agency (r = −.04) or pathways (r = −.04). Both hope agency and pathways were negatively correlated with negative affective conditions (rs < −.11, ps < .01). However, hope pathways were not correlated with those outcomes as strongly as was hope agency.

Table 1.

Bivariate Correlations Between All Study Variables Among Chinese Male and Female College Students.

Measures	1	2	3	4	5	6
1. Interpersonal violence	–
2. Hope agency	−.04	–
3. Hope pathway	−.04	.74***	–
4. Negative affect	.22***	−.22***	−.16***	–
5. Depressive symptoms	.28***	−.24***	−.15***	.41***	–
6. Suicide ideation	.37***	−.14***	−.11**	.30***	.50***	–
M	6.26	23.85	24.00	23.26	27.53	5.83
SD	2.65	4.45	4.71	5.94	7.57	2.28
Range	5–25	4–32	4–32	10–48	0–43	5–25

Note. N = 737; SD = standard deviation.

p < .05. **p < .01. ***p < .001.

Three separate hierarchical regression analyses were performed to predict negative affective conditions in the present sample (see Table 2). As previous studies have found evidence for gender differences in presentations of negative affective conditions (e.g., Chang, 2018), we controlled for basic demographic factors in the analyses. To determine whether any of the predictors accounted for a small, medium, or large amount of the variance in negative affective conditions, we used Cohen’s (1977) convention for small (f² = .02), medium (f² = .15), and large effects (f² = .35) as a general guide.

Table 2.

Results of Hierarchical Regression Analyses Showing Amount of Variance in Negative Affective Conditions Accounted for by Demographic Variables, Interpersonal Violence, and Hope Components in Chinese Male and Female College Students.

Outcomes	β	R ²	ΔR²	F	p
Negative affect
Step 1: demographics		.01	–	3.80	.02
Age	−.02
Sex	−.10**
Step 2: interpersonal violence	.21***	.05	.04	31.65	≤.001
Step 3: hope components		.10	.05	18.31	≤.001
Hope agency	−.21***
Hope pathways	.00
Depressive symptoms
Step 1: demographics		.02	–	6.28	.00
Age	.00
Sex	−.13***
Step 2: interpersonal violence	.27***	.08	.07	53.23	≤.001
Step 3: hope components		.14	.06	23.79	≤.001
Hope agency	−.28***
Hope pathways	.06
Suicide ideation
Step 1: demographics		.01	–	5.13	.01
Age	−.05
Sex	−.11**
Step 2: interpersonal violence	.37***	.14	.13	107.05	≤.001
Step 3: hope components		.16	.02	6.96	≤.001
Hope agency	−.12*
Hope pathways	−.01

Note. N = 737.

p < .05. **p < .01. ***p ≤ .001.

Negative Affect

In Step 1, demographic variables as a set accounted for a small (f² = .01) 1.0% of variance, F(2, 733) = 3.80, p < .05, within which sex emerged as a significant predictor (β = −.10, p < .01). Next, interpersonal violence, entered in Step 2, accounted for a small-medium (f² = .04) 4.0% of additional variance, F(1, 732) = 31.65, p < .001, and was found to be a significant predictor (β = .21, p < .001). Finally, in Step 3, when hope agency and hope pathways were entered as a set, it accounted for a small-medium (f² = .05) 5.0% of additional variance, F(2, 730) = 18.31, p < .001. Within the set, only hope agency emerged as a significant predictor (β = −.21, p < .001). The total model accounted for a small-medium (f² = .11) 10.0% of the variance, F(5, 730) = 15.61, p < .001.

Depressive Symptoms

Demographic variables, entered as a set in Step 1, accounted for a small (f² = .02) 2.0% of variance, F(2, 733) = 6.28, p < .01, within which only sex emerged as a significant predictor (β = −.13, p ≤ .001). In Step 2, interpersonal violence accounted for a small-medium (f² = .07) 7.0% of additional variance, F(1, 732) = 53.23, p < .001, and was found to be a significant predictor (β = .27, p < .001). Finally, in Step 3, hope agency and hope pathways were entered as a set, which accounted for a small-medium (f² = .06) 6.0% of additional variance, F(2, 730) = 23.79, p < .001. Within the predictor set, only hope agency was found to be a significant predictor (β = −.28, p < .001). The total model accounted for a medium-large (f² = .16) 14.0% of the variance, F(5, 730) = 23.68, p < .001.

Suicidal Ideation

In Step 1, demographic variables as a set accounted for a small (f² = .01) 1.0% of variance, F(2, 733) = 5.13, p < .05. Within the set, sex was found to be a significant predictor (β = −.11, p ≤ .01). When interpersonal violence was entered in Step 2, it accounted for a small-medium (f² = .14) 13.0% of additional variance, F(1, 732) = 107.05, p < .001, and emerged as a significant predictor (β = .37, p < .001). Finally, when hope agency and hope pathways were entered as a set in Step 3, it accounted for a small-medium (f² = .02) 2.0% of additional variance, F(2, 730) = 6.96, p ≤ .001. Within the set, only hope agency was found to be a significant predictor (β = −.12, p < .05). The total model accounted for a medium (f² = .18) 16.0% of the variance, F(5, 730) = 26.93, p = .001.

Discussion

During the past two decades, with the growth of positive psychology, increased research has been dedicated to identifying variables that not only foster well-being but also mitigate the negative effects of life adversities. Hope is considered in positive psychology as a key human strength to possess (Kwon et al., 2015). Consistent with this trend and notion, one goal of this study was to examine hope as a concurrent predictor of negative affect, depressive symptoms, and suicidal ideation, above and beyond demographics (i.e., age and sex) and interpersonal violence. In this Chinese college student population, we found that exposure to interpersonal violence was positively and hope was negatively correlated with each of these outcomes. In addition, hope was found to account for a significant amount of additional variance in each of these negative affective conditions, beyond what was explained by age, sex, and interpersonal violence. As such, hope, particularly the lack of hope, appears to be of greater consequence in predicting negative affective conditions, lending additional support for the powerful influence of hope (e.g., Munoz, Brady, & Brown, 2017; Munoz, Hellman, & Brunk, 2017; Snyder et al., 1991). This finding appears to be consistent with Liu et al.’s (2017) study that examined predictors of first-year college students’ adjustment in the context of collective trauma (e.g., injury, witnessing violence), which showed that high levels of hope at baseline buffered against depression and post-traumatic stress 1 year later. Indeed, this is not surprising given that hope inherently involves a positive future-oriented thinking, which facilitates the adaptation process, particularly in the midst of stressful or traumatic events (Liu et al., 2017).

This study also aimed to identify whether one hope component would emerge as a stronger predictor that explained more additional variance in negative affective conditions among Chinese college students. The present findings indicated that indeed, within hope components, only hope agency, but not hope pathways, accounted for a significant amount of additional variance across the predictions of all three outcomes. Although these results contrast with Snyder et al.’s (1991) contention that both hope agency and pathways represent important and complimentary processes that contribute to fostering good psychological and physical health, they are consistent with Bandura’s (1997) proposition that personal agency is a primary driving force of human behavior and adjustment. Moreover, our findings among a Chinese population join the pattern found internationally in the United States and Turkey (Chang et al., 2017; Muyan & Chang, 2016) that identified only hope agency as the mechanism by which previous violence exposure is associated with negative affective conditions. Taken together, it appears that hope agency, relative to hope pathways, might serve as a more robust proximal, and perhaps more universal determinant of negative affective conditions.

While recent studies have been fruitful in developing and utilizing the vulnerability model approach to understanding risk for interpersonal violence (e.g., Ponsford, 2016), our data suggest that it is equally useful and important to examine the role of positive psychological processes (e.g., hope) in accounting for individuals’ psychological adjustment following violence exposure. Specifically, given the present findings highlighting the greater involvement of hope agency, efforts to address the absence of hope agency may be particularly important in an attempt to mitigate negative affective conditions linked to interpersonal violence among Chinese college students. However, although several intervention studies grounded in Snyder et al.’s (1991) theory have shown their efficacy in fostering hope in both community and student samples, and in female survivors of interpersonal violence (e.g., Cheavens et al., 2006; Feldman & Dreher, 2012; Schroeder et al., 2018), less emphasis has been placed on instilling and strengthening hope agency in particular, despite the accumulated support for the greater role of this hope component. Hence, in addition to applying interventions that focus on hope in general, additional efforts to bolster one’s hope agency, or goal-directed thinking and belief in one’s capability and determination to overcome one’s adverse experiences, especially in the context of interpersonal violence, may maximize the effectiveness of such interventions.

Limitations

Some limitations of the present study should be acknowledged. First, as this study focused on undergraduates, it is unclear as to how the present findings would extrapolate to other ages, cultures, clinical populations, and groups with other characteristics. For example, Chang (2003) found that hope pathways, but not hope agency, was uniquely linked to predicting depressive symptoms in middle-aged males. Thus, it would be beneficial to further explore potential age and gender differences and examine, for example, whether the stronger contribution of hope agency remains among symptomatic violence victims or adults living in the community. Second, the HITS is intended to directly assess for domestic violence; it is unknown whether participants were in a relationship or not by the time they completed the study measures, which may invite some noise in the data. Yet, the large sample size may have helped maintain the generalizability of the results. Third, although this study examined a model in which interpersonal violence and hope predicted suicidal ideation, we did not investigate if interpersonal violence and hope predicts even more extreme outcomes, such as suicidal attempts or completions. Therefore, while our model may be useful in understanding suicidal risk, it remains to be determined if the proposed model could predict suicide attempts made by Chinese populations. Fourth, the extent of interpersonal violence exposure and other stressors participants may have experienced that might contribute to symptoms were not measured. Further work could also determine whether the associations between interpersonal violence and negative affective conditions remain significant after controlling for the extent of interpersonal violence exposure and other stressors, such as academics, family, or interpersonal relationships. Fifth, and finally, the cross-sectional design of this study precludes the possibility to make causal assumptions. Future research may determine if hope agency longitudinally predicts lower negative affective conditions associated with interpersonal violence.

Conclusion

The key finding from the present study is that in Chinese college students, only hope agency within hope components consistently emerged as a significant predictor of negative affect, depressive symptoms, and suicidal ideation, after accounting for demographic factors and interpersonal violence. The lack of belief in one’s ability to achieve a goal might be more proximal to negative psychological adjustment than that of coming up with practical pathways to meet a goal, suggesting that a strong goal-directed determination can more effectively confer positive outcomes.

Footnotes

Acknowledgements

The authors would like to thank Xuan Zhang for her generous assistance with data collection.

Author’s Note

M.L. finalized the study design and drafted the initial and final versions of the present work. M.L. and E.C.C. conducted data interpretation. E.C.C. and O.D.C. assisted with study design and contributed to critical revisions. O.D.C. assisted with data interpretation.

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

ORCID iD

Mingqi Li

Author Biographies

Mingqi Li is a graduate student in the Department of Psychology at DePaul University. Her research focuses on the causes and both personal and interpersonal consequences of eating disorders in diverse groups. She is also interested in researching the impact of family environment on facilitating personal growth, performance (e.g., academic performance), and psychological adjustment in children and adolescents.

Edward C. Chang is a professor of Psychology, in the Department of Psychology, and a professor of Social Work, in the School of Social Work at the University of Michigan. His research focuses on the intersectionality of positive psychology, psychopathology, stress and coping, race and culture, and personality processes. He is the author of over 200 articles and scholarly works, as well as an editor of over a dozen books.

Olivia D. Chang is a student at the University of Michigan. Her research interests lie in understanding the contexts and conditions under which mental health is influenced within individuals and families. Her passion for clinical psychological science is inextricably linked to her concern for understanding risk and resilience across diverse cultural and racial groups.

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