Gender-equitable Attitudes,Rape Myth Acceptance,and Perceived Peer Acceptance of Violence among High School Students: An Examination of Gender and Athletic Involvement

Abstract

Adolescent relationship abuse (ARA) impacts approximately one-third of teens and is associated with myriad negative health outcomes. Studies on college men indicate that athletes hold less gender-equitable attitudes (GEA), greater rape myth acceptance (RMA), and higher perceived peer support for violence (PSV), and that these attitudes are associated with perpetration risk. However, research has yet to compare the prevalence of these attitudes across gender and athletic status among high school students. The present study addressed this gap by examining the direct and interactive effects of gender and athletic status on GEA, RMA, and PSV in a large sample of high school students living in the United States. Results showed that boys involved in athletics reported lower GEA, higher RMA, and higher PSV than girls involved in athletics and non-athletes. Findings demonstrate the importance of addressing attitudes associated with violent behavior among high school boys involved in athletics, in order to reduce risk of ARA.

Keywords

sexual violence dating violence school athletics

Introduction

Adolescent relationship abuse (ARA), defined as physical, sexual, and psychological abuse in adolescent romantic, dating, or intimate relationships, is a significant health crisis, with as many as one in three adolescents experiencing ARA (Exner-Cortens et al., 2013). Although literature exploring trends in ARA has focused primarily on prevalence and health outcomes among college populations, recent research demonstrates that rates of relationship abuse among high school students are correspondingly high (Wincentak et al., 2017). Specifically, a recent review by Taquette & Monteiro (2019) found ARA prevalence greater than 50% for boys and girls, either as victims or perpetrators, with more serious health consequences among girls. Moreover, a large-scale survey assessing rates of teen dating violence among U.S. high school students similarly found that approximately a quarter of students had experienced physical dating violence, sexual dating violence, or both within the previous calendar year (YRBS, 2017). Clearly, ARA impacts individuals across stages of early development and academic contexts (i.e., high school and college).

ARA is associated with numerous negative health outcomes, including depression, reproductive health problems, acute suicidality and suicide attempts, teen pregnancy, HIV infection, adult relationship instability, and later cycles of violence victimization and perpetration (De Koker et al., 2013). Moreover, violence victimization is associated with poor academic performance, frequent school absence, and negative mental health outcomes (Hammig & Jozkowski, 2013; Juvonen et al., 2011). Prevention of ARA is therefore especially salient for high school students, as interventions designed to mitigate the onset and impact of ARA may improve both health-related and academic outcomes.

Attitudes Linked to Violence

Attitudes and perceptions that promote sexist behavior may play a significant role in ARA perpetration among men. Attitudes regarding gender equity and the acceptability of sexually abusive behavior have been reliably correlated with participation in different forms of aggression. For example, rape myth acceptance (RMA)—the endorsement of rape-related misconceptions (e.g., “only bad girls get raped” and “women ask for it”) (Burt, 1980)—is associated with increased likelihood to perpetrate sexual violence (Mouilso & Calhoun, 2013). Conversely, individuals who endorse more gender-equitable attitudes (GEA) (Pulerwitz & Barker, 2008) are less accepting of interpersonal violence (Lanis & Covell, 1995).

Individuals’ adoption and endorsement of abuse-condoning attitudes may be reinforced by the perception that those attitudes are shared by their in-group. Additionally, personal attitudes are frequently correlated with perceived peer attitudes. For instance, men’s perceptions of their peers’ willingness to prevent rape or intervene against sexual violence predicts their own willingness to prevent rape or intervene against sexual violence (Fabiano et al., 2003; Stein, 2007). Moreover, young men’s perception that their men peers both engage in and support the use of sexual aggression (i.e., peer support for violence; PSV) (Strang & Peterson, 2013) may increase their own likelihood of perpetrating sexual violence. This pattern similarly holds for perpetration of non-sexual dating abuse (DeKeseredy & Kelly, 1993; Sinclair, 2002).

Athletic Participation in the United States

In the United States, significant financial resources are devoted to the promotion of athletic involvement. Across the United States, approximately 7.9 million high school students participate in school sports (NFHS, 2019). The top 10 most popular high school sports among boys are 11-player football, outdoor track and field, basketball, baseball, soccer, cross-country, wrestling, tennis, golf, and swimming/diving. Among girls, the most popular team sports are track and field, volleyball, basketball, soccer, softball, cross country, tennis, swimming/diving, competitive sprint, and lacrosse (NFHS, 2019). Athletic participation norms differ by gender, with high school boys participating more frequently in contact team sports such as football and wrestling. For example, sports-related purchases constitute a massive portion of the U.S. economy—the revenue from the North American sports market was $71.06 billion in 2018 (Gough, 2019). Athletics are also viewed as an avenue toward higher social status, with student athletes in the United States being more likely than non-athletes to report self-perceived popularity regardless of gender, socioeconomic status, or grade. For example, in the United States, 3rd–12th grade students report that participation in sports is the most important criterion for male popularity (Shakib et al., 2011).

Violence-related Attitudes among Athletes

Both the prevalence of abuse-condoning attitudes and the perpetration of abuse itself are influenced by social contexts. These problematic attitudes and behaviors tend to be especially high among male college athletes. Numerous studies document the association between participation in college athletics and perpetration of abuse among college men (Gidycz et al., 2007; McCray, 2015; Murnen & Kohlman, 2007). Participation in high school athletics is associated with hostile sexism, acceptance of violence, and RMA among college men (Forbes et al., 2006), as well as higher rates of sexual coercion among high school boys (Young et al., 2017). It is feasible that the specific context of all-male peer groups may contribute to greater perceived PSV among isolated communities, including college athletic teams and fraternities (Carr & VanDeusen, 2004; Casey & Beadnell, 2010; Gidycz et al., 2007).

Accordingly, research indicates that men who have small, dense peer networks comprised mostly of other men are more likely to report perpetration of partner violence than men with large, loosely connected groups of gender-diverse friends. Gendered social bond and male peer support theory posits that, in rape-prone societies, male peer groups may provide support and encouragement for the use of men’s violence against women, therefore generating violent behavior and reinforcing acceptance of violence among men (DeKeseredy, 1990). Although many studies document the association between men’s athletic participation and violence perpetration, research indicates that among women and girls, athletic participation may be beneficial (Broh, 2002; Dodge & Jaccard, 2002; Sundgot-Borgen et al., 2003), with girls who participate in sports experiencing less physical and sexual abuse than non-participants (Taylor et al., 2010).

Notably, approximately 59% of 10th-grade students participating in some team sport throughout the academic year (Child Trends, 2018), and sociological research postulates that sports constitute an environment through which athletes participate in active socialization, build character, and learn peer values (Coakley, 1993). Though research has examined RMA and GEA among high school athletes, the bulk of this literature has focused on boys, in the context of whether or not boys themselves perpetrate different aggression. Moreover, extant research exploring PSV among athletes has largely been conducted at the university level and focuses exclusively on samples of men. There is a paucity of research regarding whether girls’ participation in team sports impacts girls’ endorsement of RMA, GEA, and PSV.

The Current Investigation

Taken together, the research outlined above suggests that gender and athletic involvement may have a significant impact on RMA, GEA, and PSV among high school students living in the United States. However, to our knowledge, no previous analyses have tested the differences in RMA, GEA, and PSV among a large sample of student athletes. Accordingly, the present research examined the association between athletic involvement, gender, RMA, GEA, and PSV in a sample of 10th-grade students across multiple schools in the Northeastern United States. Given extant research regarding the associations between athletic involvement, RMA, GEA, and PSV among college athletes, the following hypotheses were proposed:

H₁: Athletic participation would be associated with higher levels of RMA.

H₂: Athletic participation would be associated with lower levels of GEA.

H₃: Athletic participation would be associated with higher levels of perceived PSV.

H₄: The above associations would be moderated by gender, such that boys involved in athletics would report less GEA, higher RMA, and higher perceived PSV compared to all other groups.

Method

Participants

The present research included baseline data from a study of 10th grade students in the Northeastern United States who were enrolled in a larger study evaluating the effectiveness of a school-based sexual assault prevention program. Students who enrolled in the research completed an anonymous survey before receipt of violence prevention programming. Students provided assent for study participation, and parents were offered the opportunity to opt their child out of the research. The Institutional Review Board, Department of Education, local school committee and project funder approved all study procedures before data collection began. The full study sample included 2,828 students. All measures were completed prior to the administration of the prevention program. Given the small sample size of participants identifying as transgender (N = 27), only individuals who identified as a girl or boy were included in the analytic sample. Participants were also excluded from the analytic sample if they did not provide information on gender identity or provide a response to all study measures. The final analytic sample included 2,197 participants, of which 52.5% identified as a girl and 47.5% identified as a boy. In the analytic sample, 54% of students reported being a member of an athletic team. All participants were in 10th grade, and the majority were between 15 and 16 years old (96.1%). Whereas the survey did not specifically assess for race or ethnicity, publicly available data on student demographics across study sites indicate that approximately one third of the student in schools included in the study identified as racial/ethnic minorities.

Measures

Gender-equitable attitudes. The extent to which participants held GEA was assessed using 12 items adapted from Pulerwitz & Barker (2008). Each item prompted participants to share how much they agreed with a particular statement regarding gender norms (e.g., “guys should sleep with as many girls as possible”; “If a girl is raped it is often because she did not say ‘no’ clearly enough”) on a 5-point Likert scale ranging from 0 (strongly disagree) to 4 (strongly agree). Items demonstrated acceptable internal consistency within the present sample (Cronbach’s α = .770). Researchers calculated a mean GEA score, with higher scores indicating more equitable attitudes.

Rape myth acceptance. Participants’ endorsement of RMA was assessed utilizing a 7-item scale modified from Payne et al. (1999) and Cook-Craig et al. (2014). Items prompted participants to indicate how much they agreed with a given myth (e.g., “Girls should have sex with their boyfriends or the guy they are dating when he wants”; “Many girls lead a guy on and then claim it was sexual assault”) on a 7-point Likert scale ranging from 0 (strongly disagree) to 6 (strongly agree). Within this sample, items demonstrated good internal consistency (Cronbach’s α = .830). Researchers calculated a mean RMA score, with higher scores indicating greater acceptance of rape myths.

Perceived peer support for violence. Perceived PSV was assessed via a 3-item scale modified from the Boeringer Social Norms Measure (BSNM; Boeringer, 1991). Items prompted participants to assess peer support for certain aggressive behaviors (e.g., “how approving do you think your friends would be of you if you got a woman drunk or high in order to have sex with her?”) on a 5-point Likert scale ranging from 0 (very approving) to 4 (very disapproving). Within the present study, the internal consistency of items in the modified BSNM is α = 0.811. Researchers calculated a mean PSV score, with higher scores indicating higher perceived PSV.

Demographics. Students indicated whether they were a member of an athletic team (are you a member of an athletic team?) and answered a demographic question assessing gender identity (what is your gender?).

Results

Descriptive Statistics and Tests of Group Differences

Means, standard deviations, and bivariate correlations of study variables are presented in Table 1. As expected, gender and athletic status were both significantly correlated with all three dependent variables. A series of two-way ANOVAs assessed the direct and interactive effects of gender (boys versus girls) and athletic status (athletes versus non-athletes) with the dependent variables of RMA, GEA, and PSV. Bar graphs showing group differences in RMA, GEA, and PSV are presented in Figures 1–3, respectively.

Figure 1.

Bar graph of rape myth acceptance scores by gender and athletic status.

Figure 2.

Bar graph of gender equitable attitudes scores by gender and athletic status.

Figure 3.

Bar graph of perceived peer support for violence scores by gender and athletic status.

Table 1.

Means, Standard Deviations, and Bivariate Correlations of Study Variables

Variable	M	SD	1	2	3	4	5
1. Gender	–	–	1	–	–	–	–
2. Athlete	–	–	–.051*	1	–	–	–
3. GEA	2.26	.46	.430**	–.115**	1	–	–
4. RMA	.96	1.02	–.263**	.079**	–.498**	1	–
5. PSV	2.51	2.77	–.421**	.081**	–.443**	–.320**	1

Note: GEA = gender-equitable attitudes; RMA = rape myth acceptance; PSV = peer support for violence. *p < .05, **p < .01.

Rape Myth Acceptance

Consistent with previous research (Forbes et al., 2006), gender had a significant main effect on RMA [F(1, 2193) = 158.692, p = < .001, ηp² = .067]. As predicted, boys reported significantly higher levels of RMA (M = 1.212, SD = 1.081) compared to girls (M = .693, SD = .806). The main effects of athletic status on RMA [F(1, 2193) = 6.120, p = .013, ηp² = .003] was likewise significant. Athletes reported significantly higher levels of RMA (M = .984, SD = 1.014) compared to non-athletes (M = .860, SD = .923). However, the interaction effect of gender by athletic status on RMA was non-significant.

Gender-equitable Attitudes

Gender had a significant main effect on GEA [F(1, 2171) = 495.046, p = < .001, ηp² = .186]. As predicted, boys reported significantly less GEA (M = 2.054, SD = .445) compared to girls (M = 2.447, SD = .364). The main effect of athletic status on GEA [F(1, 2171) = 17.705, p < .001, ηp² = .008] was likewise significant. Athletes reported significantly less GEA (M = 2.227, SD = .444) compared to non-athletes (M = 2.316, SD = .448). The hypothesized interaction effect of gender by athletic involvement on GEA was also significant [F(1, 2171) = 3.978, p = .046, ηp² = .002]; boys involved in athletics reported significantly less GEA (M = 2.007, SD = .429), compared to boys who were not involved in athletics (M = 2.115, SD = .459).

Perceived Peer Support for Violence

Gender had a significant main effect on PSV [F(1, 2102) = 445.692, p = < .001, ηp² = .175]. As predicted, boys reported significantly more PSV (M = 3.69, SD = 2.91) compared to girls (M = 1.39, SD = 1.95). The main effect of athletic status on PSV [F(1, 2102) = 7.403, p < .05, ηp² = .004] was likewise significant. Athletes reported significantly more PSV (M = 2.60, SD = 2.77) compared to non-athletes (M = 2.22, SD = 2.56). The hypothesized interaction effect of gender by athletic involvement on PSV was also significant [F(1, 2102) = 6.580, p = .010, ηp² = .003]; boys involved in athletics reported significantly more PSV (M = 3.92, SD = 2.97), compared to boys not involved in athletics (M = 3.36, SD = 2.79).

Discussion

The present study sought to extend the extant literature documenting variations in sexual abuse-related attitudes across different social groups in college populations by examining how such attitudes differed across boys and girls involved in athletics and non-athletes in a high school sample. Consistent with previous research on college populations (Forbes et al., 2006), our results showed that in general, athletes reported significantly less GEA, higher RMA, and higher PSV compared to non-athletes. Likewise, boys reported significantly less GEA, higher RMA, and higher PSV compared to girls. Additionally, the main effects of athletic status on GEA and PSV were moderated by gender; such that boys who were athletes reported significantly less GEA and higher PSV than boys who were not athletes. However, the negative association between athletic status and GEA did not differ significantly among girls as a function of involvement in athletics.

These findings align with research examining associations between athletic participation and rape-supportive attitudes among college men (Moynihan et al., 2010), and suggest that violence-condoning and GEA may be reinforced by the specific peer context of all-boy athletic teams, rather than athletic involvement itself. Research indicates that men in small, dense, mostly male peer networks are more likely to report abuse perpetration—and therefore potentially endorse associated attitudes—than men with large, loosely connected, diverse friend groups (Casey & Beadnell, 2010). In some cases, athletic involvement may isolate boys who are involved in athletics from their non-athlete peers, thus creating a restricted social context in which PSV is amplified and reinforced (Kreager, 2007). Whereas boys engaged in athletics who primarily socialize within insular groups of their teammates may be exposed to higher PSV, those who maintain a more diverse social network and interact with students who participate in other extracurricular activities may be less prone to adopting misogynistic or abuse-condoning attitudes.

Given the possibilities above, researchers should assess whether athletes who engage socially with students who participate in band, chorus, art, theater, dance, or co-ed athletic teams endorse higher GEA, lower RMA, and lower PSV than athletes who are more isolated within athletics-oriented peer groups. Research is also needed to understand the mechanisms through which higher levels of RMA and lower levels of GEA develop among certain groups of male athletes. It is likely that these factors vary across different types of athletic teams, and future research should explore variability in these risk factors for sexual aggression between athletic teams. Interventions may benefit from incorporating school-wide social norms data that counter perceived PSV within certain athletic teams.

Although not statistically significant, it is notable that girls involved in athletics in the current study reported slightly higher PSV, higher RMA, and lower GEA than girls not involved in athletic. Despite extant literature indicating that participation in sports positively influences development of self-esteem among girls (Eime et al., 2013; Keane, 2004), and reduces risk for physical and sexual abuse (Taylor et al., 2010), girls’ athletic involvement does not necessarily enhance GEA. Indeed, inequities that are inherent to the landscape of school-based sports—such as greater access to financial resources for boys’ athletic teams—may reinforce gender inequitable attitudes among girls on athletic teams (Sabo et al., 2004). Moreover, traditional femininity norms, including nurturing tendencies and passivity, frequently contradict ideals of athletic prowess, such as physical dominance. Research suggests that involvement in school sports may drive girls on athletic teams to present themselves as unthreatening, or uphold traditional stereotypes of femininity, in order to retain their social marketability (Sabo et al., 2004). Therefore, though participation in athletic teams may have the potential to increase GEA among girls, they may experience particular pressure to adhere to traditional gender roles in order to “make up for” their violation of these roles during school sports. Research should examine whether GEA are strengthened among girls who participate in some sports, but not others, as well as whether the impact of athletic status on GEA, RMA, or PSV is mediated by feminine gender role stress.

Clinical and Policy Implications

Our findings underscore the importance of critically examining messages regarding gender norms (i.e., the importance of physical dominance, relative power over women, and lack of empathy for out-group members) that are communicated within the context of all-boy athletic teams. As a part of a larger comprehensive sexual assault prevention approach, it may be useful to ensure that boys on athletic teams receive programming that targets RMA and GEA. Moreover, it would be worthwhile to explore the messages about power, status, and aggression received by athletes before reaching the high school level (i.e., in middle school sports), in order to identify an influential point of time in which athletic participation begins to coincide with greater RMA, lower GEA, and increase PSV. It is possible that interventions administered at a high school level are sometimes ineffective in reducing perpetration rates because, by high school, GEA, RMA, and PSV have already been established. Whereas athletic teams within high schools may be important targets for intervention, conducting programming with middle school athletic teams focused on gender equity, respect for peers, support for victims, and the condemnation of violent behavior may serve as a primary prevention strategy before students reach high school.

Given that involvement in high school sports may have a significant impact on hostile sexism, PSV, and RMA among college men (Forbes et al., 2006), college administrators should pay special attention to different risks for perpetration behaviors that specific populations face, and target prevention, intervention, and treatment programs accordingly. It is feasible that student athletes evincing high RMA, low GEA, and greater PSV in high school may be particularly at risk for the problematic reinforcement of these attitudes—and at greater risk for perpetrating related harm behaviors—at the college level. Coaches and trainers within both high school and college athletics must be made aware of the propensity of all-male athletic teams to foster a culture that is more accepting of violence, and that therefore has the potential to breed perpetration. Notably, interventions designed by Miller et al. (2012) seek to improve GEA and reduce RMA among high school boys involved in athletics via the “Coaching Boys into Men” (CBIM) program. However, whereas attitudes toward bystander intervention and recognition of abuse did improve as a result of programming, actual rates of violence perpetration and victimization did not change. Future interventions should build on the promising work by Miller and colleagues in order to identify an effective mechanism of change for reducing harm behaviors among high school athletes, or targeting norms within these groups in such a way that victimization and perpetration decrease after intervention follow-up. As in Miller et al.’s (2012) CBIM program, coaches should be invited to participate in interventions to address these attitudes themselves. Of note, given the popularity of high school sports and the wider sports culture within the United States, athletes are frequently awarded social status in school environments (Shakib et al., 2011). It is feasible that improving GEA and reducing RMA among high-profile athletes within school environments—for example, the star of the football team—could have a disproportionate impact on these norms within the larger community. Indeed, nominating these students as peer leaders in efforts to reduce RMA and increase GEA is a potential area for targeted intervention and peer-to-peer education.

Finally, little is known regarding the impact of girls’ athletic involvement on RMA, GEA, and PSV. Future research should qualitatively examine girls’ perceptions of these constructs in relation to their participation in school sports. Given the associations between athletic involvement and self-esteem among girls who participate in sports (Eime et al., 2013), athletic teams may be appropriate targets for interventions to increase GEA and reduce RMA and PSV among girls, through social norms and empowerment-based programming.

Limitations

Although our study aimed to fill a gap in extant literature regarding the impact of athletic involvement and gender on RMA, GEA, and PSV among adolescents, several limitations to the present study should be noted. First, based on examination of demographic data for participating schools, most of the adolescents in the present sample identified as White. Future analyses should examine the influence of gender and athletic status on these aggression-affiliated attitudes among a more racially and ethnically diverse sample of high school students. Second, these analyses did not assess attitudinal findings for gender minority students (i.e., transgender, non-binary, genderqueer, or genderfluid youth). Importantly, sexual and gender minority (SGM) students are at particular risk for experiencing violence, and approximately one quarter of SGM students participate in interscholastic sports (Kosciw et al., 2012). Future research should examine the athletic experiences and related attitudes of SGM adolescents. Third, the present study was conducted at high schools across New England and may not generalize to other regions of the United States, or to other countries. Results may vary in other regions of the country or the world, especially geographic areas with a cultural focus on different sports (i.e., wrestling, soccer, rugby, etc.). Further, this study did not differentiate by different “types” of athletes—for example, those participating in contact versus non-contact sports, or team versus single-goal sports. Future research should assess whether the differences in RMA, GEA, and PSV among high school boys involved in athletics are moderated by sport type. Additionally, survey data were collected via self-report measures. It is feasible that, as a result of social desirability bias, students misreported their own attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors. Future research should incorporate mixed-methods data collection, including semi-structured individual interviews and focus groups with individuals associated with high school athletic participation in order to establish a more nuanced perspective regarding the relationship between gender, athletic status, RMA, GEA, and PSV.

Conclusions

The present study sought to expand on existing research on the influence of gender and athletic involvement on RMA, GEA, and PSV by examining how these constructs differed across boys and girls on athletics teams and non-athletes within a large sample of U.S. high school students. Our analyses showed that in general, boys and athletes reported significantly higher RMA and PSV, and lower GEA than girls and non-athletes. Furthermore, boy-athletes in particular reported the less GEA, higher RMA and PSV than all other groups. Taken together, these findings provide evidence that the problematic, violence-condoning attitudes observed to be prevalent among college men who participate in sports may be established earlier in adolescent development, and perhaps fostered in the context of high school sports participation. Future research should examine the relationships between these attitudes and actual violence perpetration among racially and gender-diverse samples of high school athletes. Further, interventions aiming to increase GEA and reduce both RMA and PSV among high school boys involved in athletics should be developed and rigorously evaluated to assess impact on aggressive behavior. Finally, the use of qualitative research methods may be particularly useful in providing insight regarding the relationships between athletic involvement, GEA, RMA, and PSV among girls involved in athletics.

Footnotes

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The author(s) declared the following potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship and/or publication of this article: They have no relevant material financial interests related to the research outlined in this manuscript. Further, this manuscript has not been submitted for publication to any other research journal.

Funding

The author(s) disclosed receipt of the following financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article: This project was funded by the award 1U01CE002531 (Orchowski: PI) from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.

ORCID iD

Katherine W. Bogen

Author Biographies

Katherine W. Bogen, BA, is a clinical program coordinator at Rhode Island Hospital, within the Department of Psychiatry.

Mohamed Mazheruddin M. Mulla, PhD, MPH, is a clinical psychology postdoctoral fellow within the Brown University Medical School, in the Department of Psychiatry and Human Behavior.

Lindsay M. Orchowski, PhD, is an associate professor (research) in the Alpert Medical School of Brown University, within the Department of Psychiatry and Human Behavior.

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