The Interaction Effects Between Father-Child Relationship Quality and Parent-perpetrated Maltreatment on Adolescent Behavior Problems

Abstract

Despite ample evidence supporting the positive and important role fathers play in youth well-being, currently little is known about the potential buffering effects of positive father-child relationships on adolescent behavioral functioning, especially within the context of child maltreatment. Clarifying whether positive parent-child relationships are helpful in the presence of maltreatment perpetrated by the same or another parent is critical for designing and implementing successful family-based interventions for positive youth development. Thus, the present study aimed to investigate the unique and combined effects of the perpetrator of child maltreatment (i.e., maltreatment perpetrated by fathers versus mothers alone) and father-child relationship quality on adolescent internalizing and externalizing problems. A series of Ordinary Least Squares multiple regressions were conducted on a sample of 14-year-old high-risk youth (N = 661) drawn from the Longitudinal Studies of Child Abuse and Neglect. The results indicated that both father-perpetrated maltreatment and mother-alone maltreatment were associated with higher levels of internalizing and externalizing problems. Higher quality of father-child relationships was associated with lower levels of internalizing but was not significantly associated with externalizing problems. Higher quality father-child relationships had a buffering impact against adolescent internalizing and externalizing problems when adolescents were maltreated by mothers alone. The findings suggest that policy and practical efforts seeking to build resilience of youth should strive to nurture and leverage positive, non-maltreating father-child relationships. Such efforts may support the positive development of adolescents, even in the face of mother-perpetrated maltreatment.

Keywords

child abuse and neglect parent-child relationship quality perpetrator identity behavior problems

Early adolescent behavior problems are associated with an array of adverse outcomes, including low self-esteem, poor academic achievement, and family functioning issues (In-Albon et al., 2017; Mastrotheodoros et al., 2020; Weeks et al., 2016). Childhood maltreatment has been identified as a salient risk factor for youth internalizing (e.g., anxiety/depression, withdrawal) and externalizing (e.g., aggression, delinquency) problems (Debowska et al., 2017; Duprey et al., 2020). Despite a substantial body of research that suggests an association between child maltreatment and adolescent behavior problems, relatively few studies have attended to these effects with consideration of perpetrator identity (e.g., mothers vs. fathers) and father/mother-child relationship quality.

The positive and protective role of father-child relationships on youth development is well-established (Amodia-Bidakowska et al., 2020; Rollè et al., 2019). Yet, ample theoretical and empirical evidence suggests a preponderance of disorganized attachment relationships (e.g., conflicting feelings of extreme desire for closeness yet fear of rejection) in children who have experienced child maltreatment (Carlson et al., 1989; Cyr et al., 2010; Pickreign Stronach et al., 2011). Considering that a large portion of maltreatment cases involve fathers as perpetrators of maltreatment (United States Department of Health and Human Services [DHHS], 2020), it is vital to examine the potential buffering effects of father-child relationship quality on adolescent development, within the context of child maltreatment and in relation to perpetrator identity. To this end, the present study aimed to increase our understanding on the interplay between father and child relationship quality and perpetrator identity (e.g., maltreatment perpetrated by fathers versus mother-alone) on adolescent internalizing and externalizing problems.

Child Maltreatment Perpetrator Types and Adolescent Behavior Problems

Betrayal trauma theory (Freyd, 1994; Goldsmith et al., 2013) posits that the impact of traumatic experiences on later psychological and physical health outcomes depends on varying degrees of victim-perpetrator relationship. According to this theory, when adolescents are maltreated by someone close to them, like a primary caregiver, they may develop amnesia or “isolation of the knowledge” for the maltreatment experience as a survival mechanism and a means to preserve their attachment with the perpetrator. According to betrayal trauma theory, child abuse perpetrated by a caregiver or someone close to the child, which represents “high-betrayal trauma”, leads to poorer physical, psychological, and behavioral health functioning compared to abuse perpetrated by someone with whom the child is less attached (Edwards et al., 2012; Freyd et al., 2007). Based on the betrayal trauma theory framework, maltreatment perpetrated by parents will have a more harmful impact on youth development than maltreatment perpetrated by nonparents.

The existing studies on the association between perpetrator type and adolescent behavior problems have been largely limited in how they categorize the type of perpetrator. That is, previous studies have commonly focused on family members vs. nonfamily members (Bal et al., 2004; Gauthier-Duchesne et al., 2017; Maikovich-Fong, & Jaffee, 2010). This is a major limitation given that each year, approximately 92% of child maltreatment is perpetrated by one or both parents (DHHS, 2020). In 2018, about 40% of maltreatment cases reported to Child Protective Services were perpetrated by mother alone, over 20% of cases were perpetrated by father alone, and nearly 30% of cases were perpetrated by mother and father or mother and nonparents (DHHS, 2020). Despite high prevalence of father-perpetrated maltreatment and an overrepresentation of fathers as perpetrators of child maltreatment (Krugman & Julien-Chinn, 2017; Scribano et al., 2013; Sinal et al., 2000), very little attention has been paid to the distinct effects of father-perpetrated maltreatment on adolescent behavior problems.

Father/Mother-Child Relationships and Adolescent Behavior Problems

Numerous studies have found that higher quality of parent-child relationships predicts fewer internalizing (Rea et al., 2020; Rose et al., 2018; Valdivieso-Mora et al., 2016) and externalizing behavior problems (Rea et al., 2020; Ruiz-Hernández et al., 2019) in children and adolescents. Although attachment theory (Ainsworth, 1979; Bowlby, 1969) and empirical evidence have supported the importance of high-quality parent-child relationships on adolescent development, prior studies have mainly focused on mother-child relationships (Hein et al., 2018; Lougheed et al., 2020) or aggregated father and mother relationships (Buist et al., 2017; Pinquart, 2017). Thus, the role of father-child relationship quality on youth development remains unclear.

A robust body of research suggests that fathers play a distinct and important role in fostering healthy and positive youth development. Numerous general population studies have consistently reported that positive father involvement, such as paternal warmth, father love, close father-child relationships, and paternal emotional support, make a unique contribution to children’s positive outcomes across socioemotional, behavioral, and cognitive domains (Barker et al., 2017; Cano et al., 2019; Daniel et al., 2016; Leung et al., 2010). A small number of studies have examined the effects of father-child relationships on behavior problems specifically for at-risk youth and found similar results to those obtained from general population studies, confirming the important roles played by fathers in youth well-being. Using a child-welfare system sample, Leon et al. (2016) examined the effects of father involvement on the longitudinal trajectory of externalizing behavior problems. Findings indicated that greater father involvement was associated with lower externalizing behavior problems at baseline, as well as a slower increase in the externalizing trajectory (Leon et al., 2016). Similarly, using a sample of low-income, urban children, a study by Marchand-Reilly and Yaure (2019) found that greater father involvement was associated with lower levels of internalizing and externalizing behavior problems in boys, but not in girls. Another study which examined both the quality and quantity of father and mother involvement found that both higher quality father-child relationships and mother-child relationships were associated with lower levels of internalizing and externalizing problems among high-risk youth (Yoon et al., 2018). Fathers may play especially important roles in the context of child maltreatment, considering that approximately 70% of maltreatment cases involve mothers as perpetrators. Moreover, fathers’ influence on child development has been found to be stronger when mothers are unable to provide optimal parenting due to multiple challenges (Chang et al., 2007; Dubowitz et al., 2011; Mezulis et al., 2004).

The Interplay Between Father/Mother Perpetration of Maltreatment and Father/Mother-child Relationship Quality

Bowlby’s (1969) attachment theory stresses that the formation of secure parent-child relationships sets the foundation for subsequent adaptive functioning for children by allowing them to develop positive internal working models of the self and attachment figures. Unfortunately, children and adolescents with a history of child maltreatment are at increased risk for the development of insecure parent-child attachment relationships (Baer & Martinez, 2006). More specifically, maltreated youths are more likely to exhibit disorganized/disoriented attachment relationships (Carlson et al., 1989; Cyr et al., 2010; Pickreign Stronach et al., 2011). The disorganized/disoriented attachment style includes confused expressions and contradictory patterns of interaction with the caregiver (e.g., approaching with head averted; Ainsworth, 1979; Main & Solomon, 1986). Previous studies have suggested that many children who experience parent-perpetrated maltreatment are bonded with their parents and desire to preserve the attachment with them, even if that may involve the child blaming themselves for their parents’ abusive acts and/or having impaired attachment relationships with parents (Baker et al., 2016; Cyr et al., 2010). Children who experience unpredictable or frightening caregiving, such as child maltreatment, may experience considerable confusion, in that the person who fulfils their basic needs and provides protection is also the very threat to their safety (White et al., 2019).

Some studies have pointed out that positive parent-child relationships may buffer the negative effects of child maltreatment on youth behavioral outcomes. For example, one study found a significant moderating effect of mother-child relationship quality in the pathways from child maltreatment to internalizing and externalizing behavior problems (Alink et al., 2009). Specifically, for children who had a secure pattern of attachment with their mothers, there was no significant impact of maltreatment on internalizing and externalizing behavior problems. Similarly, Fagan (2020) found that parent-child relationship quality buffered the effects of maltreatment on youth aggressive behavior for White youth. Taken together, the positive effects of high-quality, secure parent-child relationships on youth development appear to hold in the context of maltreatment and even buffer the impact of maltreatment. Yet, at the same time, perpetration of maltreatment by parents may impede the development of positive, trusting, and high-quality adolescent relationships with their parents. Given both theoretical and empirical evidence of complex and disorganized attachment patterns prevalent in maltreated youth (Carlson et al., 1989; Cyr et al., 2010), it is critical to understand the interplay between parent-child relationship quality and perpetrator identity (parent-perpetrated maltreatment) on youth behavioral outcomes. Despite the potential significance, there is very limited information on the interaction effects between mother- and father-child relationship quality and perpetration of maltreatment on adolescent internalizing and externalizing behavior problems. This is critical to clarifying whether positive parent-child relationships are helpful in the presence of maltreatment perpetrated by the same or another parent. This information can offer important insight into the development of more effective prevention and intervention strategies to reduce behavior problems among at-risk youth.

The Present Study

The primary aim of this study is to examine associations among father/mother perpetration of maltreatment, father/mother-child relationship quality, and adolescent internalizing and externalizing problems. We were particularly interested in investigating if father-child relationship quality plays a unique role, which is different from the role of mother-child relationship quality, in adolescent internalizing and externalizing problems and, if these associations vary across the type of perpetrator (i.e., fathers, mothers-alone). This study aimed to answer two research questions: (a) do perpetrator type and father/mother-child relationship quality predict adolescent internalizing and externalizing problems? (b) Are their significant interaction effects between perpetrator type and father/mother relationship quality on adolescent internalizing and externalizing problems? Guided by betrayal trauma theory, we hypothesized that both father-perpetrated maltreatment and mother-alone maltreatment would be associated with greater internalizing and externalizing problems, when compared to no-parent maltreatment. Drawing from attachment theory, we hypothesized that both higher quality father-child relationships and higher quality mother-child relationships would be associated with fewer internalizing and externalizing problems. Based on attachment theory and previous studies that highlight the buffering effects of positive parent-child relationships against the impact of maltreatment on youth outcomes, yet at the same time, point to the preponderance of insecure (e.g., disorganized/disoriented) attachment patterns in maltreated children, we hypothesized that the positive effects of high quality father-child relationships and mother-child relationships on youth behavioral outcomes, would be stronger when adolescents were maltreated by mothers and fathers, respectively.

Methods

Sample and Procedures

The current study utilized data from the Longitudinal Studies of Child Abuse and Neglect (LONGSCAN). LONGSCAN is a multisite cohort study that involved 1,354 children and their families in the United States (Larrabee & Lewis, 2016). The goal of LONGSCAN was to examine the etiology and long-term developmental effects of child maltreatment. The study included five study sites: East, Midwest, Northwest, Southwest, and Southeast. The East sample (n = 282), consisted of children who were considered high risk for child maltreatment due to child (e.g., failure to thrive) or parental (e.g., drug use) risk factors. The Midwest sample (n = 245), included children who had a history of CPS investigations and a control group. The Northwest sample (n = 254), was comprised of children who had CPS reports prior to age 5. The Southwest sample (n = 330) consisted of children who were placed in out-of-home care due to confirmed maltreatment. The Southeast sample (n = 243) consisted of children identified as high risk at birth according to a state public health tracking system. All five sites employed common procedures and measures to collect data. Data were collected through multiple sources, including child protective services (CPS) records and face-to-face interviews with primary caregivers and children. The first author obtained data access from the National Data Archive on Child Abuse and Neglect. The present study was determined exempt from review by the [Blinded for Review] Institutional Review Board.

In this study, we used data collected at age 14. The analytic sample was limited to 661 adolescents who reported having a father or father figure at the time of assessment. Adolescents who were excluded from the study were less likely to be White (23.0% vs. 29.4%), χ² (1, N = 1,354) = 7.181, p = .007, and had a greater number of CPS records (M = 3.49 vs. M = 2.77), t (1344.99) = 3.450, p = .001, compared to those in the study sample. No other significant differences were observed in relation to demographics and outcomes.

Measures

Internalizing and Externalizing Problems

Adolescent internalizing and externalizing problems were measured at 14-years using the internalizing broadband scale and the externalizing broadband scale of the Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL; Achenbach, 1991), respectively. The CBCL internalizing scale consists of three subscales: social withdrawal (9 items, e.g., won’t talk, sulks a lot), somatic complaints (9 items; trouble sleeping, stomachaches), and anxiety/depression (14 items, e.g., nervous, feels worthless) scales. The CBCL externalizing scale combines the delinquent behavior (13 items, e.g., vandalism, sets fires) and aggressive behavior (20 items, e.g., argues a lot, gets in many fights) scales. For both internalizing and externalizing scales, caregivers rated their children on the extent to which they exhibited certain behaviors in the past 6 months using 3-point response option set (0 = Not true, 1 = Somewhat or sometimes true, 2 = Very or often true). Internal reliabilities in this sample were strong (Internalizing: α = .90, Externalizing: α = .93).

Father/Mother-Child Relationship Quality

The quality of father-child relationships was measured using a 6-item scale (e.g., How close do you feel to him? How much you think he cares about you? How often does he trust you?). Adolescents reported the extent to which each item accurately described their relationship with their fathers on a 5-point response scale (1 = not at all/never – 5 = very much/always). The items were summed to create a total score. Higher scores indicated a higher quality of father-child relationships. The quality of mother-child relationships was measured using the identical measure of father-child relationship quality but focusing on the mother. Both scales were administered at 14 years. Internal reliabilities in this sample were strong (father: α = .87, mother: α = .83).

Perpetrator Identity

The perpetrator of maltreatment was assessed using CPS maltreatment data (birth to age 14) that were coded based on the Modified Maltreatment Classification System (MMCS; English & the LONSCAN Investigators, 1997), a widely used coding system that has demonstrated measurement fidelity. In the MMCS, fathers included biological father, adoptive father, stepfather, foster father, and mother’s boyfriend. Mothers included biological mother, adoptive mother, stepmother, foster mother, and father’s girlfriend. Perpetrator identity was originally recoded into the following mutually exclusive four categories: mother alone, father alone, father and mother together, no maltreatment by parents. However, only 3.8% of the sample had father alone maltreatment cases, where the maltreatment was perpetrated solely by the father. Thus, the father alone category was combined with the father and mother together category to indicate maltreatment perpetrated by fathers with or without mothers. The final categories were maltreatment by mothers alone; maltreatment by fathers (alone or with mothers); and no maltreatment by parents.

Control Variables

The adolescent’s sex (0 = male, 1= female) and race were reported by the caregiver. Child race was dummy-coded (White, Black, Hispanic, Other), using Black as the reference group. Black was chosen as the reference group because it was the largest racial group in this sample (52%). The history of child maltreatment was assessed by summing the number of CPS reports of child abuse and neglect, including both allegations and substantiated cases, from birth to age 14. Maltreatment type and timing (age) were also assessed using CPS data (maltreatment allegation and investigation narratives), which were coded using the Modified Maltreatment Classification System (MMCS; English & the LONSCAN Investigators, 1997). Four binary variables (0 = no, 1 = yes) of physical abuse, sexual abuse, emotional abuse, and neglect were created based on the youth’s CPS records from birth to age 14. For the timing of maltreatment, four dummy variables were created: maltreatment during early childhood only (ages 0-5); maltreatment during the school age period only (ages 6-14); chronic maltreatment (maltreatment experienced in both developmental stages); and no maltreatment. Family substance use was operationalized as the total number of substances (e.g., alcohol, cigarettes, marijuana, cocaine, etc.,) used by family members (possible range 0–9).

Data Analysis

Preliminary analyses, including univariate descriptive statistics and bivariate correlations, were conducted to examine missing values and outliers and, to ensure no violation of the assumptions of Ordinary Least Squares (OLS) multiple regression. Continuous variables were centered around the mean to improve interpretability of the results and reduce multicollinearity. In this study, there was no indication of multicollinearity as correlations among predictors were well below .80 and all VIF values were less than 2.5 (Allison, 1999). OLS multiple regression analyses were conducted to examine perpetrator type and father/mother-child relationship quality as predictors of adolescent internalizing and externalizing problems (research question 1). Next, another set of OLS multiple regression models were established to examine the interaction effects between maltreatment perpetrator type (i.e., fathers [with or without mothers], mother alone) and father/mother-child relationship quality on internalizing and externalizing problems (research question 2). Four interaction terms were computed: two perpetrator type variables (fathers [with or without mothers], mother alone) x two parent-child relationship quality variables (father-child relationship quality, mother-child relationship quality). In terms of missing data, no variable had more than 4% missing values. The family substance use variable had 3% missing, internalizing and externalizing problems had 2.9% missing, and mother-child relationship quality had 3.2% missing cases. All other study variables had complete data. Little’s MCAR test was not significant (χ² = 20.209, p = .090), suggesting that data were missing completely at random. Missing data were handled using multiple imputation with a fully conditional specification method (100 iterations) and 25 imputed datasets. All analyses were performed using SPSS V.27.

Results

Sample Characteristics

Table 1 presents sample characteristics and descriptive statistics of key study variables. Half (49.8%) of the sample was female. Approximately 52.3% of the adolescents were Black, 30% were White, 5.6% were Hispanic, and 12.7% were other races and ethnicities, including Native American, Asian, and mixed race. The adolescents in the study had on average three CPS records of abuse and neglect from birth to age 14 (SD = 3.6), with a range of 0 to 22. One quarter (24.4%) of the sample had experienced child maltreatment by father (i.e., maltreatment perpetrated by fathers alone or together with mothers). About 38.6% of the adolescents had experienced maltreatment perpetrated by mother alone. Table 2 summarizes the correlations among key study variables.

Table 1.

Sample Characteristics and Descriptive Statistics of Study Variables (N = 661).

	%	M (SD)	Range
Gender (female)	49.77
Race/ethnicity
White	29.35
Black	52.34
Hispanic	5.60
Other	12.71
Family substance use		1.42 (1.36)	0-9
CPS records ages 0-14		2.77 (3.64)	0-22
Maltreatment type
Physical abuse	34.79
Sexual abuse	16.04
Emotional abuse	35.10
Neglect	57.04
Maltreatment timing/chronicity
No maltreatment	34.95
Early childhood only (0-5)	25.87
School age only (6-14)	12.41
Chronic maltreatment	26.78
Maltreatment perpetrator
Maltreatment perpetrated by father (w/wo mother)	24.36
Maltreatment perpetrated by mother alone	38.58
No maltreatment perpetrated by parents	37.06
Father child relationship quality		24.01 (5.04)	6-30
Mother child relationship quality		25.31 (4.02)	8-30
Internalizing problems		50.06 (11.35)	31-85
Externalizing problems		55.44 (11.76)	32-92

Note. CPS records = child protective services records of abuse and neglect from birth to age 14.

The Main Effects

Model 1 and Model 3 in Table 3 present the results of the OLS regression analysis that examined the main effects of perpetrator identity and father/mother child relationship quality on adolescent internalizing and externalizing problems. Perpetrator identity was not significantly related to youth internalizing or externalizing problems. Higher quality father-child relationships were associated with fewer internalizing problems (B = −.23, SE = .09, p = .015), but were not associated with externalizing problems (B = −.17, SE= .10, p = .088). Higher quality mother-child relationships were associated with fewer externalizing problems (B = −.35, SE = .12, p = .004). In terms of control variables, greater number of substances used by family members was associated with greater internalizing (B = .73, SE = .35, p = .038) and externalizing (B = .80, SE= .33, p = .017) problems. Child neglect was associated with greater internalizing problems (B = 3.93, SE = 1.75, p = .025). Hispanic youth had lower externalizing problems compared to Black youth (B = −4.74, SE = 1.98, p = .016).

Table 2.

Correlations among Key Study Variables.

1. Youth internalizing problems

—

2. Youth externalizing problems

.71**

—

3. Father-child relationship quality

−.18**

−.19**

—

4. Mother-child relationship quality

−.18**

−.23**

.42**

—

5. Maltreatment by father (w/wo mother)

.21**

.20**

−.11**

—

6. Maltreatment by mother alone

.07

.10*

.05

−.04

−.45**

—

7. Physical abuse

.24**

.27**

−.10*

−.19**

.51**

.07

—

8. Sexual abuse

.16**

.20**

−.10*

−.13**

.35**

−.02

.35**

—

9. Emotional abuse

.22**

−.12**

−.17**

.43**

.15**

.56**

.29**

—

10. Neglect

.28**

−.05

−.18**

.29**

.58**

.42**

.27**

.48**

—

11. Maltreatment in early childhood only

.09*

−.01

−.05

.21**

.19**

.20**

.15**

.24**

.32**

—

12. Maltreatment in school age only

.03

.01

.04

−.04

.30**

−.07

−.09*

−.08*

.18**

−.22**

—

13. Chronic maltreatment

.18**

.22**

−.08*

−.16**

.27**

.22**

.43**

.27**

.41**

.46**

−.36**

−.29**

—

14. # of CPS records

.26**

−.07

−.13**

.54**

.08*

.59**

.45**

.58**

.57**

.12**

−.07

.51**

Note. CPS records = child protective services records of abuse and neglect from birth to age 14; *p < .05. **p < .01.

Table 3.

Predictors of Internalizing and Externalizing Problems (N = 661).

	Internalizing Problems						Externalizing Problems
	Model 1			Model 2			Model 3			Model 4
	B	SE	p	B	SE	p	B	SE	p	B	SE	p
Sex (female)	−.01	.87	.987	.19	.88	.830	1.68	.90	.063	1.96	.91	.031
Child race/ethnicity
White	1.20	1.08	.267	1.19	1.09	.273	−.10	1.10	.928	−.16	1.10	.887
Hispanic	−.96	1.93	.621	−.86	1.94	.657	−4.74	1.98	.016	−4.64	1.97	.019
Other	−.33	1.42	.817	−.07	1.42	.963	−1.28	1.43	.370	−1.02	1.43	.473
Family substance use	.73	.35	.038	.78	.36	.029	.80	.33	.017	.83	.34	.014
# of CPS records 0-14^a	.24	.19	.220	.26	.19	.179	.21	.20	.292	.23	.20	.255
Maltreatment type
Physical abuse	1.29	1.27	.311	1.18	1.27	.353	2.16	1.30	.097	2.12	1.30	.103
Sexual abuse	.86	1.37	.528	.94	1.37	.495	1.97	1.40	.160	2.09	1.40	.137
Emotional abuse	−.04	1.22	.977	−.11	1.23	.926	−.63	1.24	.608	−.63	1.25	.616
Neglect	3.93	1.75	.025	3.64	1.77	.039	2.13	1.79	.234	1.92	1.81	.288
Maltreatment timing/chronicity^b
Early childhood only (0-5)	4.26	3.27	.192	3.95	3.31	.233	5.24	3.33	.116	4.41	3.38	.191
School age only (6-14)	5.58	3.36	.096	5.15	3.41	.131	5.36	3.42	.118	4.38	3.46	.206
Chronic maltreatment	5.20	3.52	.140	4.72	3.56	.186	6.98	3.58	.052	6.01	3.62	.097
Perpetrator identity^c
Father (w/wo mother)	−3.57	3.15	.258	−3.09	3.17	.329	−2.92	3.20	.361	−2.14	3.22	.507
Mother alone	−5.06	3.07	.100	−4.39	3.09	.156	−3.54	3.13	.259	−2.60	3.15	.409
Father-child (F-C) relationship	−.23	.09	.015	−.02	.15	.919	−.17	.10	.088	.07	.16	.675
Mother-child (M-C) relationship	−.18	.12	.132	−.40	.21	.062	−.35	.12	.004	−.70	.22	<.001
Father x F-C relationship				−.01	.25	.969				−.04	.25	.870
Mother alone x F-C relationship				−.51	.21	.016				−.54	.22	.014
Father x M-C relationship				.01	.33	.985				.27	.33	.444
Mother alone x M-C relationship				.47	.28	.091				.63	.29	.027
R ²	.154			.167			.188			.201

Note. ^aCPS records = child protective services records of abuse and neglect from birth to age 14, ^breference group = no exposure to maltreatment, ^creference group = no maltreatment by parents, statistically significant results are bolded.

The Interaction Effects

As seen in Models 2 and 4 in Table 3, several significant interaction effects were found in the OLS regression models. There were significant interaction effects between father-child relationship quality and mother-alone maltreatment on internalizing (B = −.51, SE = .21, p = .016) and externalizing (B = −.54, SE= .22, p = .014) problems. The quality of father-child relationships showed stronger negative associations with internalizing problems (Figure 1A) and externalizing problems (Figure 1B) for adolescents who had been maltreated by mothers alone. Additionally, mother-child relationship quality had a significant interaction effect with mother alone maltreatment on externalizing problems (B = .63, SE = .29, p = .027). The quality of mother-child relationships had a stronger inverse association with externalizing problems (Figure 2) for adolescents who had not experienced maltreatment perpetrated by mother alone.

Figure 1.

Interaction effects of father-child relationship quality and perpetrator identity on internalizing and externalizing problems.

Figure 2.

Interaction effects of mother-child relationship quality and perpetrator identity on externalizing problems.

Discussion

This study examined the associations among maltreatment perpetrated by fathers and mothers, father and mother-child relationship quality, and adolescent internalizing and externalizing problems, with a particular focus on the interaction between father and mother-child relationship quality and maltreatment perpetration. In contrast to our hypothesis and betrayal trauma theory (Freyd, 1994; Goldsmith et al., 2013), there was no significant association between perpetrator identity and adolescent internalizing and externalizing problems. These findings are inconsistent with past research that found parent-perpetrated maltreatment to be more detrimental to child development compared to maltreatment perpetrated by nonparents (Debowska et al., 2017; Duprey et al., 2020). The null findings in this study may be explained by strong correlations between perpetrator identity and other maltreatment characteristics, such as the type of maltreatment and the number of CPS reports, which were also included in the models as covariates. For example, child neglect, which was a significant predictor of youth internalizing problems, was strongly correlated with maltreatment perpetration by mothers alone, and potentially masked the effects of mother-alone maltreatment on adolescent internalizing problems.

This study found that higher quality father-child relationships were associated with fewer internalizing problems among adolescents, in line with previous studies (Sandler et al., 2008; Yoon et al., 2018). This finding suggests that having a father who is caring, loving, and supportive might serve as a protective factor. Adolescents who have positive, high-quality relationships with their fathers may have better emotional regulation skills, which may be related to fewer internalizing problems, such as loneliness, anxiety, and depressive symptoms (Moilanen et al., 2018).

However, in contrast to hypotheses, father-child relationship quality was not associated with adolescent externalizing problems. This finding differs from prior research which has found that positive father-child relationships (Cabrera et al., 2011) and positive parental characteristics, such as warmth and emotional availability (White & Renk, 2012), are negatively associated with externalizing behaviors. While there is no clear explanation for this null finding, it may partly be an artifact of the reporters of study variables. Specifically, youth may perceive lower relationship quality with a parent when that parent perceives youth externalizing behavioral problems. Since primary caregivers (largely mothers) reported on behavioral problems in this study, these may be linked to youths’ perceptions of mother but not father relationship quality.

Interestingly, and opposite to the father-child relationships findings, higher quality mother-child relationships were negatively associated with externalizing problems, but not with internalizing problems. These findings on externalizing problems are generally consistent with previous studies that have identified positive mother-child relationships and maternal warmth as protective factors for behavior problems among adolescents (Alegre et al., 2014; Skopp et al., 2007; Von Suchodoletz et al., 2011). Findings are also in line with attachment theory (Bowlby, 1969) that highlights the role of secure mother-child relationships in positive youth development and outcomes. The nonsignificant association between mother-child relationships and internalizing problems may be attributed to peers playing a significant role in the development of internalizing problems during adolescence. Previous studies have suggested that peer attachment may have a relatively stronger influence on adolescent adjustment (e.g., depression) than parent attachment (Laible et al., 2000) and that peer attachment is significantly associated with internalizing problems among adolescents (Gorrese, 2016; Tambelli et al., 2012). Nevertheless, it is unclear why high-quality mother-child relationships may not exert a similar protective effect for adolescent internalizing problems, and further research is needed.

Findings of significant interactions between father and mother-child relationship quality and maltreatment perpetrated by mothers alone are novel contributions to the field. When adolescents were maltreated by mothers alone, higher quality father-child relationships had a buffering impact against adolescent internalizing and externalizing problems. Higher quality mother-child relationships had a protective effect on adolescent internalizing and externalizing problems, except when maltreatment was perpetrated by mother-alone. The quality of father-child relationships appears to be especially protective when the perpetrator is only the mother; the protective features of positive mother-child relationships were undermined by the presence of mother-perpetrated maltreatment. This finding highlights the important role played by a non-abusive father, even in the face of significant maternal risk (i.e., maltreatment) at promoting positive behavioral health outcomes in youth.

Findings for interaction effects involving mother-child relationships are in line with previous studies which have found that maternal warmth does not affect the relationship between abusive parenting practices and behavioral issues (Yildirim & Roopnarine, 2015). Similarly, maternal warmth has been found to have no impact on the relationship between corporal punishment and aggression (Lee et al., 2013). This finding may be attributed to youth feeling confused that the mother whom they perceive to be loving, supportive, and warm is also the one who is being abusive and/or neglectful towards them. This confusion, related to an unpredictable mother-child relationship, might explain various internalizing and externalizing problems, including anxiety, depression, and aggression among adolescents.

Limitations

The findings of the study should be interpreted with several limitations in mind. First, this study has limited time-order validity, with both parent-child relationship quality and adolescent behavioral problems measured at 14-years. This prohibits causal inferences from being drawn from the findings. Future research should use longitudinal data to examine the long-term impact of father-child relationship quality on youth development over time. Second, the quality of father- and mother-child relationships was based on youth’s perception of their relationships with their parents. Future studies may benefit from incorporating fathers’ (mothers) view on their relationship with children. Similarly, future research should incorporate multiple and varying perspectives (i.e., those of youth) on youths’ behavioral problems. Third, we did not consider extensive history of father-child relationships, such as father presence, residential status, and multiple fathers across the youth’s life. Fourth, the use of a high-risk sample, which consisted of adolescents who have experienced or were at risk for maltreatment, and who had relationships with fathers, limits the generalizability of the study findings. Finally, CPS reports were used to indicate maltreatment. These may not capture all occurrences (Cooley & Jackson, 2020). Moreover, we did not consider the characteristics of maltreatment (i.e., type, severity, chronicity) in this study, which may vary based on perpetrator identity (Kobulsky et al., 2020).

Diversity

Despite these limitations, the current study has a unique strength in that the study sample consisted of racially diverse adolescents, with Black adolescents representing over a half of the sample and other racial/ethnic minorities, including Hispanic, Native American, Asian, bi/multi-racial adolescents, making up about 20% of the sample. Thus, our findings enhance understanding of the roles of father/mother-perpetrated maltreatment and father/mother-child relationships on behavior problems among racially and ethnically diverse adolescents. However, it should also be noted that the findings may have been influenced by cultural components and/or experiences of racism, considering that the majority of the sample was Black adolescents. The impact of culture and racial/cultural differences in outcomes was beyond the scope of the current study but should be examined in future research. Another strength of this study is its attention to the role of fathers in maltreatment perpetration and youth development. Our consideration and inclusion of fathers in the study contributes to enhancing diversity in the maltreatment literature, given that the field has traditionally predominantly focused on mothers. Future research may benefit from paying attention to the intersection between race/ethnicity and gender (fathers) to increase our knowledge about racial differences in the roles of fathers (e.g., father-perpetrated maltreatment, father-child relationships) in the development of youth behavioral problems.

Implications and Conclusions

The findings from this study have several implications for policy and practice. Regarding policy, funding should be directed towards interventions that support positive-father child interactions and promote the positive involvement of fathers in their children’s lives. In regard to practice, social service providers seeking to apply a strengths-based perspective should make every effort to promote and harness positive, nonmaltreating father-child relationships as a valuable asset benefiting of youth, even in the face of maternal maltreatment. Providers should actively seek out, engage, and include fathers, not just mothers, in positive parenting interventions. Programming tailored to meet the specific needs of fathers should be included in these efforts. Additionally, responses to child maltreatment should include parent-child joint therapies or interventions that simultaneously target parenting practices and youth outcomes. Finally, behavioral health interventions that address internalizing and externalizing problems in adolescents, should additionally address parent-child relationships, including father-child relationships.

In conclusion, a positive relationship with a nonmaltreating parent, whether mother or father, is a protective factor even in the context of child maltreatment. Positive relationships with fathers have a stronger, protective effect in the context of mother-alone perpetrated maltreatment. The protective effects of positive relationships with mothers are undermined by the presence of mother-perpetrated maltreatment. Taken together, the findings suggest that policy and practical efforts should strive to nurture and leverage positive, nonmaltreating father-child relationships, which may support the positive development of adolescents, even in the face of mother-perpetrated maltreatment.

Footnotes

ORCID iDs

Susan Yoon

Julia M. Kobulsky

Author Biographies

Susan Yoon, PhD, is an Associate Professor at The Ohio State University College of Social Work. Dr. Yoon’s research seeks to promote resilience and well-being in children who have experienced child maltreatment. She is particularly interested in identifying factors, mechanisms and pathways that promote or hinder resilient development following child maltreatment. Her current research includes (a) an exploration of the conceptualization and measurement of the construct ‘resilience’; (b) investigation of the developmental pathways from child maltreatment to behavioral risks and resilience; and (c) the role of fathers in resilient development of maltreated youth.

Dalhee Yoon, PhD, is an Assistant Professor in the Department of Social Work at the College of Community and Public Affairs of Binghamton University the State University of New York. Dr. Yoon’s research investigates the impact of child maltreatment across a range of adolescent risk behaviors (e.g., substance use, risky sexual behaviors, and internalizing and externalizing symptoms), with a specific focus on the role of peer relationships. Her research seeks to advance the understanding of adverse consequences of child maltreatment and to bridge research and practice.

Anika Latelle is a PhD student at The Ohio State University. She is also a Licensed Clinical Social Worker (LCSW) and Licensed Independent Social Worker (LISW). Anika received her BSW from the University of West Florida in 2014 and a joint MSW/MPA from Florida State University in 2016. Prior to entering the PhD program, Anika spent two years working as a mental health therapist in a residential facility for male juvenile offenders. Anika’s research interests include adverse childhood experiences, juvenile delinquency, and sexual violence.

Julia Kobulsky, PhD, is an Assistant Professor at Temple University School of Social Work. The goal of Dr. Kobulsky’s research and teaching is to support the mental and behavioral health of youth involved in the child welfare system. She conducts research on adolescent substance use and other behavioral health problems in child welfare populations and on the measurement of child maltreatment. She also has an interest in program evaluation and implementation science and is passionate about collaborating with child welfare and behavioral health agencies to support innovations to improve outcomes for youth and families.

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