Social Comparison Orientation and Cyberbullying Perpetration and Victimization: Roles of Envy on Social Networking Sites and Body Satisfaction

Abstract

Although some studies have explored the psychological and behavioral outcomes of social comparison orientation (SCO), few have explored the associations of SCO with cyberbullying perpetration and victimization. The current study aimed to investigate the associations of SCO with cyberbullying perpetration and victimization, and considered envy on social networking sites (SNS) as a mediator and body satisfaction as a moderator in these relations. To test our expectations, 941 adolescents aged between 10 and 16 years (M = 13.15, SD = 1.18) completed multiple questionnaires, namely the Social Comparison Orientation Scale, the Revised Cyber Bullying Inventory, an envy scale revised for the SNS context, and the Body Areas Satisfaction Scale. Correlation analysis revealed that cyberbullying perpetration and cyberbullying victimization were significantly and positively correlated with SCO and envy on SNS, and significantly and negatively correlated with body satisfaction. The results of structural equation modeling (SEM) revealed that envy on SNS played a mediating role in the associations of SCO with cyberbullying perpetration and victimization. The results of SEM and simple slope test analysis indicated that body satisfaction weakened the direct association of SCO with envy on SNS and further weakened the indirect associations of SCO with cyberbullying perpetration and victimization via envy on SNS. Specifically, individuals with high levels of SCO were more likely to feel envious on SNS, and further tended to bully others and be bullied online when they were dissatisfied with their bodies. In other words, positive body satisfaction protected individuals with high levels of SCO from cyberbullying perpetration and victimization by decreasing their feelings of envy on SNS.

Keywords

Social comparison orientation cyberbullying perpetration and victimization envy on social networking sites body satisfaction moderated mediation model

Introduction

Cyberbullying is a form of interpersonal violence (Hinduja & Patchin, 2015). A systematic review indicated that the highest self-reported cyberbullying perpetration rate among the 159 studies reviewed was 44.1%, the highest self-reported cyberbullying victimization rate was 65.0%, and up to 64.3% of the adolescents had been involved in cyberbullying, both as perpetrators and victims (Brochado et al., 2017). More importantly, cyberbullying perpetration and victimization, and even simply witnessing cyberbullying, have been shown to trigger a range of adverse outcomes. For instance, individuals involved in cyberbullying, no matter whether as a perpetrator or victim, were more likely to report an increase in internalization problems, such as poor self-esteem, social anxiety, and even depressive disorder (Chu et al., 2018; Patchin & Hinduja, 2010; Wang, Xie et al., 2019). In addition, cyberbullying perpetration and victimization also lead to several externalized problematic behaviors, such as conduct problems, increased substance abuse, low prosocial behavior, hyperactivity, and headaches (Sourander et al., 2010). Given the high prevalence rate and adverse outcomes described above, an exploration of the risk and protective factors associated with cyberbullying perpetration and victimization is urgently needed.

Cyberbullying has been the subject of extensive concern. However, researchers in this field have not agreed on how to define it (Gaffney et al., 2019). Some researchers view cyberbullying as a form of traditional bullying (including repetition, power imbalance, and intent) using electronic communication methods (Smith et al., 2008). While cyberbullying has several characteristics in common with traditional bullying, the two behaviors are distinct from each other in several key aspects, such as indirectness, anonymity, and harm (Choi & Kruis, 2019). Due to the inconsistency in definitions, Peter and Petermann (2018) conducted a concept analysis to propose an operational definition of cyberbullying, namely “using information and communication technologies (ICT) to repeatedly and intentionally harm, harass, hurt and/or embarrass a target.”

Cyberbullying is particularly prevalent among Chinese adolescents (Wang, Yang et al., 2019). In a study that investigated the prevalence of cyberbullying in different countries (Brochado et al., 2017), the highest median prevalence of cyberbullying perpetration among adolescents was found in the group of studies from China (23.0%, varying between 11.2% and 56.9%), while the lowest median prevalence was observed in studies from Australia (5.0%), Sweden (5.2%), and Germany (6.3%). Under the Chinese cultural background, people place importance on preserving the integrity of their group and good interpersonal relationship (Wang, Wang et al., 2019). Consequently, students who are afraid of being caught engaging in traditional bullying may be more likely to engage in cyberbullying due to the anonymity of the internet (Cho & Lee, 2020; Choi & Kruis, 2019). More importantly, influenced by the Confucian philosophy of traditional Chinese values, victims of cyberbullying often took no action against victimization due to their inclination to avoid conflicts and maintain group harmony (Chan & Wong, 2015), which may result in more cyberbullying perpetration and victimization, and do more harm to victims (Chen et al., 2016). Moreover, it is among adolescents that cyberbullying most commonly occurs (Ansary, 2019). Thus, examining the trajectories of cyberbullying among Chinese adolescents is necessary to provide a comprehensive explanation of cyberbullying. Previous studies have highlighted the value and importance of examining cyberbullying trajectories among Chinese adolescents (Wang, Wang et al., 2019; Wang, Xie et al., 2019; Wang, Yang et al., 2019).

Cyberbullying involves both perpetrators and victims. The perpetrator of cyberbullying is the person who performs single or multiple acts of violence directed at another person using ICT, and the victim is the person experiencing the attack or attacks (Lizut, 2019). According to the “cycle of violence” phenomenon (Wang, Yang et al., 2019), cyberbullying perpetration increases the likelihood of victims becoming perpetrators, perpetuating the cycle (Chapin & Coleman, 2017). In one study, both perpetrators and victims scored higher on measures of depression, hostility, interpersonal sensitivity, paranoia, phobic anxiety, and psychoticism than other participants who were not exposed to cyberbullying (Schenk et al., 2013). Consequently, most studies have focused on the risk and protective factors of cyberbullying perpetration and victimization.

Some studies have used a social–ecological conceptual framework to divide risk and protective factors into several domains, namely individual, family, peer, school, and community (Cross et al., 2015). Some individual-level factors, such as self-esteem, self-control, empathy, anxiety, aggression, moral disengagement, and being a victim of traditional bullying, were found to increase the risk of cyberbullying perpetration and victimization (Ansary, 2019). Previous research has also indicated that social comparison increased the risk of traditional bullying and victimization (Stasio et al., 2016). However, to date, there has been no investigation into the relationship between social comparison orientation (SCO) and cyberbullying perpetration and victimization. Considering the similar formation mechanism underlying both traditional bullying and cyberbullying (Chen et al., 2016), SCO may also function as a risk factor for cyberbullying perpetration and victimization. Moreover, given the nature of the internet, particularly the absence of a clearly delimited spatiotemporal framework and the lack of adult supervision (Lozano-Blasco et al., 2020), we expected that individuals high in SCO would be more likely to bully others or be victimized online. To test this view, the current study extended previous research by investigating the relationship between SCO and cyberbullying perpetration and victimization in the context of social networking sites (SNS).

In keeping with the social comparison theory (SCT; Festinger, 1954), upward social comparison, as a behavioral outcome of SCO, is the basis of envy on SNS (Van de Ven, 2017), which increases hostility online (Wang, Wang et al., 2020). Thus, SCO may increase feelings of envy on SNS, which, as a social emotion characterized by hostility (Wang, Wang et al., 2020), may trigger further cyberbullying perpetration (Stockdale et al., 2015) and victimization (Chapin & Coleman, 2017). That is, envy on SNS may mediate the relationship between SCO and cyberbullying perpetration and victimization. Moreover, the SCT indicates that if individuals evaluate themselves negatively, they may attempt to make potentially deflating upward social comparisons (Greenwood, 2017) that further increase feelings of envy (Wang, Wang et al., 2020). However, social comparisons on SNS caused by SCO are mostly appearance-related comparisons (Engeln et al., 2020), meaning that if people are dissatisfied with their bodies, they may feel more envy after social comparisons. In other words, low body satisfaction may strengthen the relationship between SCO and envy on SNS and further strengthen the association of SCO with cyberbullying perpetration and victimization. To determine how SCO is related to cyberbullying perpetration and victimization, we investigated the mediating role of envy on SNS and the moderating effect of body satisfaction on the relationship between SCO and cyberbullying perpetration and victimization.

Literature Review

SCO and Cyberbullying Perpetration and Victimization

The common phenomenon in which people compare themselves with others is known as social comparison (Festinger, 1954). Individual differences in the tendency to engage in social comparisons is known as SCO (Gibbons & Buunk, 1999; Rozgonjuk et al., 2019). According to the SCT (Festinger, 1954), upward social comparison means comparing oneself with a person who is seen as being superior, and downward social comparison means comparing oneself with a person who is seen as being inferior in a social situation. Previous research showed that people tend to engage in upward comparison rather than downward comparison (Gerber et al., 2018).

In cyberspace, people often post about their positive life events and successes or post entertaining status updates or beautified pictures (Lin & Utz, 2015). On the one hand, at the behavioral level, individuals with a strong SCO were more likely to engage in upward comparison in cyberspace, which triggered internalizing problems (Brandenberg et al., 2019; Schmuck et al., 2019) and externalizing problems, such as aggressive behavior (Lee et al., 2020) and bullying, and victimization (Stasio et al., 2016). On the other hand, at the psychological level, people high in SCO tended to have poor self-esteem (Błażek & Besta, 2012) and self-control (Lee et al., 2014), which increased the risk of cyberbullying perpetration (Chen et al., 2016; Lianos & McGrath, 2017). In addition, SCO as a competitive disposition positively correlated with aggression, harm-intending behavior, and victimization (Choi et al., 2011). In cyberspace, where social comparisons are more likely to be triggered among individuals high in SCO and where individual behaviors are not easily monitored, individuals with a strong SCO may be more likely to bully others. Moreover, the tendency to engage in social comparison was associated with heavy and frequent SNS use (Ozimek & Förster, 2017), which further increased the risk of cyberbullying victimization (Lee et al., 2017). Therefore, we proposed that SCO positively correlates with cyberbullying perpetration and victimization.

Envy on SNS as a Mediator

Envy refers to “the unpleasant and often painful blend of feelings caused by comparison with a person or group of persons who possess something we desire” (Smith & Kim, 2007, p. 49). As previously stated, upward social comparison is the basis of envy, and comparing oneself with one’s “betters” increases the possibility of envy (Van de Ven, 2017). Using the SCT, researchers have demonstrated that social comparison on SNS (especially comparing oneself with someone who appears to be doing much better in certain respects) results in increased feelings of envy (Latif et al., 2020). Due to people’s tendency to engage in upward social comparison (Gerber et al., 2018) and toward positive self-presentation in cyberspace (Lin & Utz, 2015), individuals with a strong SCO are more likely to experience feelings of envy on SNS (Lin et al., 2018). Many studies have found that social comparison on SNS is a significant positive predictor of envy on SNS (Latif et al., 2020; Park & Baek, 2018; Pera, 2018; Wang, Wang et al., 2020).

Some direct and indirect evidence has supported the association of envy on SNS with cyberbullying perpetration and victimization. The social psychology literature suggests that envy increases the possibility of harmful behaviors (Smith & Kim, 2007). As a social emotion associated with hostility (Wang, Wang et al., 2020), envy triggers aggressive behaviors, such as relational aggression (Kokkinos et al., 2020) and cyberbullying perpetration (Stockdale et al., 2015). Moreover, envy has many negative effects on individuals’ psychosocial adjustment, such as increased risks of anxiety and depression (Wang, Wang et al., 2020). Individuals experiencing depression, sadness, and loneliness have difficulties in developing good relationships online and become more vulnerable to threats such as cyberbullying victimization (Kokkinos & Antoniadou, 2019). Therefore, we expected that envy on SNS would increase the risk of cyberbullying perpetration and victimization.

In previous empirical studies, SCO was associated with feelings of envy on SNS (Latif et al., 2020; Park & Baek, 2018; Pera, 2018; Wang, Wang et al., 2020), which may be further related to cyberbullying perpetration (Stockdale et al., 2015) and victimization (Wang, Wang et al., 2020; Kokkinos & Antoniadou, 2019). Accordingly, we expected that envy on SNS would mediate the relationship between SCO and cyberbullying perpetration and victimization. Consistent with the comparison process described by Tesser (1988), social comparison arising from positive self-presentations by others on SNS tarnishes self-evaluation and elicits feelings of envy on SNS (Smith & Kim, 2007), which may fuel the motivation to restore the decreased self-evaluation by enacting harming behaviors such as cyberbullying perpetration (Sung & Park, 2016; Tai et al., 2012). With the addition of the violent cycle of cyberbullying perpetration and victimization (e.g., Chapin & Coleman, 2017), envy on SNS may mediate the association of SCO and cyberbullying perpetration and victimization. Previous studies have supported this view by demonstrating the mediating effect of envy on SNS on the relationship between social comparison and aggressive behaviors such as gossiping about friends on SNS (Latif et al., 2020). In light of this, we proposed that envy on SNS mediates the associations of SCO with cyberbullying perpetration and victimization.

Body Satisfaction as a Moderator

As already stated, social comparison involves comparing oneself with others, thus, one’s views of oneself can influence the outcomes of social comparison. Furthermore, since social comparisons on SNS caused by SCO are mostly appearance related, the outcomes may be influenced by body satisfaction, defined as how contented a person is with their body in general or with specific body parts (Peter & Valkenburg, 2014). Individuals who evaluate themselves negatively may make potentially deflating upward comparisons (Greenwood, 2017), leading to further feelings of envy (Wang, Wang et al., 2020). By contrast, individuals who view themselves positively are less likely to engage in upward comparisons and are thus spared the feelings of envy caused by upward social comparisons. Therefore, we expected that a high level of body satisfaction would weaken the effect of SCO on envy on SNS.

Although the moderating effect of body satisfaction on the association of SCO with envy on SNS has not been studied, some indirect evidence for this point of view has been reported. For example, online social identity, as a self-concept that results through identification with social groups, was found to protect subjects’ self-evaluation and thus weaken the feelings of envy induced by social comparisons on SNS, resulting in a decrease in gossip about SNS friends (Latif et al., 2020). Moreover, identity with the group and self-esteem, as vital factors promoting higher self-evaluation and self-worth, were shown to relieve the adverse effect of unfavorable social comparisons with colleagues on workplace envy (Zhang, 2020). Therefore, we expected that individuals who evaluate themselves negatively are more likely to experience feelings of envy due to a strong SCO.

Previous studies about body image indicated that people who were dissatisfied with their body image were psychologically more vulnerable and more likely to be perpetrators and victims of traditional bullying (Zequinão et al., 2017). However, few studies have examined the relationship between body satisfaction and cyberbullying perpetration and victimization, and considered body satisfaction as a moderator. As previously stated, people who are dissatisfied with their bodies engage in more upward social comparisons, resulting in increased feelings of envy that can trigger cyberbullying perpetration or increased symptoms of cyberbullying victimization, such as anxiety and depression. Therefore, we expected that poor body satisfaction will weaken the association of SCO with envy on SNS and further weaken the indirect associations of SCO with cyberbullying perpetration and victimization via envy on SNS.

The Current Study

The current study first considered SCO as a risk factor for cyberbullying perpetration and victimization. In keeping with the SCT (Festinger, 1954), we explored the mechanism underlining the associations of SCO with cyberbullying perpetration and victimization by considering envy on SNS as a mediator and body satisfaction as a moderator. With the addition of the violent cycle of cyberbullying perpetration and victimization (Chapin & Coleman, 2017), we proposed the moderated mediation model shown in Figure 1 to test the following hypotheses:

H₁: SCO positively correlates with cyberbullying perpetration and victimization.

H_2a: Envy on SNS mediates the relationship between SCO and cyberbullying perpetration.

H_2b: Envy on SNS mediates the relationship between SCO and cyberbullying victimization.

H₃: Body satisfaction weakens the association of SCO with envy on SNS and further weakens the indirect associations of SCO with cyberbullying perpetration and victimization via envy on SNS as mediator.

Figure 1.

Proposed moderated mediation model.

Methods

Participants

In January 2020, we used convenience sampling to recruit 944 Chinese adolescents to complete four anonymous self-report questionnaires without any material reward in one junior high school in Shandong Province, China. Prospective participants were required to own and have used a mobile phone or computer to connect to the internet in the previous year. After excluding participants who did not complete the questionnaires or who answered the questions irregularly, the final sample comprised 941 participants (50.5% boys) aged between 10 and 16 years (M = 13.15 years, SD = 1.18 years). Informed consent was obtained from school administrators, teachers, parents, and the participants themselves, and the research study was approved by the local ethics committee of the school.

Measures

Social comparison orientation. SCO was assessed using the Chinese version of the Social Comparison Orientation Scale developed by Wang et al. (2006). It consists of 11 items divided into 2 dimensions, ability and concept. Each item was rated using a 5-point Likert-type scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). Higher average scores indicated higher levels of SCO. In the current study, Cronbach’s alpha coefficient for this instrument was .813.

Cyberbullying perpetration and victimization. Cyberbullying perpetration and victimization were assessed using the Chinese version of the Revised Cyber Bullying Inventory (RCBI; Topcu & Erdur-Baker, 2010), translated and revised by Chu and Fan (2017). Cyberbullying perpetration and victimization were measured using separate sub-scales. Each sub-scale included 14 items rated on a 4-point Likert-type scale as follows: 1 (It has never happened to me), 2 (It happened once), 3 (It happened two to three times), and 4 (It happened more than three times). Higher average scores indicated more frequent cyberbullying perpetration and victimization. In the current study, Cronbach’s alpha coefficient for the cyberbullying perpetration sub-scale was .801 and for the cyberbullying victimization sub-scale .856.

Envy on SNS. Envy on SNS was assessed using the scale devised by Krasnova et al. (2015), who transferred the traditional envy scale established by Vecchio (2000) into the SNS context. It consisted of six items about how often people thought about their friends’ “superiority” on platforms such as Microblog, Qzone, WeChat Moments, and TikTok. Rating was done on a 7-point Likert-type scale ranging from 1 (almost never) to 7 (very often). Higher average scores indicated higher levels of envy on SNS. In the current study, Cronbach’s alpha coefficient for this scale was .891.

Body satisfaction. Body satisfaction was measured using the Body Areas Satisfaction Scale (BASS; Cash, 2000), a sub-scale of the Multidimensional Body-Self Relations Questionnaire (MBSRQ). It included nine items assessing satisfaction with all aspects of appearance, including the face, hair, lower torso, mid-torso, upper torso, muscle tone, weight, height, and overall appearance, rated on a 5-point Likert-type scale ranging from 1 (very dissatisfied) to 5 (very satisfied). Higher average scores indicated higher levels of body satisfaction. In the current study, Cronbach’s alpha coefficient for BASS was .924.

Statistical Analyses

First, all data were recorded and processed using SPSS 18.0. Outliers and missing data (.03%) were handled using the multiple imputation approach. Second, common-method bias was tested for by means of common variance analysis. After the principal component analysis, the first factor to explain the variance was 20.29%, demonstrating that this study had few issues with common-method bias. Third, descriptive statistics and Pearson correlation analysis were conducted to analyze all research variables. Fourth, the presumptive moderated mediation model was tested through structural equation modeling (SEM) using Amos 22.0. Within the structural model, the mediating effects of envy on SNS between SCO and cyberbullying perpetration and victimization were tested using a bootstrapping approach. Last, the specific moderating effect of body satisfaction on the effect of SCO on envy on SNS was analyzed through a simple slope test.

Results

Descriptive Statistics and Correlation Analysis

The results of the t tests indicated that boys were significantly more satisfied with their bodies, t(939) = 4.61, p < .001. No difference between boys and girls was found for SCO, cyberbullying perpetration, cyberbullying victimization, and envy on SNS (p > .05). Age was significantly positively associated with SCO, cyberbullying perpetration, cyberbullying victimization, and envy on SNS (p < .05). Therefore, we included sex and age as covariates in subsequent analyses.

Descriptive statistics and a correlation matrix of all research variables are provided in Table 1. SCO, cyberbullying perpetration, cyberbullying victimization, and envy on SNS were significantly and positively correlated with each other (p < .001) and were significantly and negatively correlated with body satisfaction (p < .05).

Table 1.

Descriptive Statistics and Correlation Matrix of All Variables.

Variables	M	SD	1	2	3	4	5
1 Age	13.15	1.18	1
2 SCO	2.58	.79	.10^***	1
3 Cyberbullying perpetration	1.07	.18	.08^*	.35^***	1
4 Cyberbullying victimization	1.15	.28	.12^***	.24^***	.57^***	1
5 Envy on SNS	1.88	1.23	.08^*	.42^***	.61^***	.42^***	1
6 Body satisfaction	3.73	.88	–.03	–.07^*	–.11^***	–.12^***	–.25^***

Note. ^* p < .05, ^** p < .001, ^*** p < .001.

Testing for the Total Effect of SCO on Cyberbullying Perpetration and Victimization

The total effect of SCO on cyberbullying perpetration and on victimization was tested through SEM. The results (see Figure 2) showed that the total effect of SCO on both cyberbullying perpetration and victimization was positive and significant. For the former, total effect = .396, SE = .04, 95% CI = [.319, .465]; for the later, total effect = .265, SE = .04, 95% CI = [.174, 346]. The total model M₁ generated a very favorable fit with the data, χ² = 14.15, df = 6, χ²/df = 2.359, CFI = .99, NFI = .98, RFI = .96, IFI = .99, TLI = .98, RMSEA = .038. The results supported H₁.

Figure 2.

Total model M₁ (n = 941).

Testing for the Moderated Mediation Model

To further investigate how and when SCO predicts cyberbullying perpetration and victimization, we assigned envy on SNS as a mediator, body satisfaction as a moderator, SCO as an independent variable, and cyberbullying perpetration and victimization as dependent variables to establish a moderated mediation model (see Figure 1). The moderated mediation model was tested by SEM using Amos 22.0.

The results showed that all direct correlations between research variables were significant (see Figure 3). The moderated mediation model M₂ generated a very favorable fit with the data, χ² = 82.492, df = 20, χ²/df = 4.125, CFI = .96, NFI = .95, RFI = .91, IFI = .96, TLI = .93, RMSEA = .058. Thus, the assumed moderated mediation model was supported.

Figure 3.

Moderated mediation model M₂ (n = 941).

For the mediating role of envy on SNS, SCO was positively associated with envy on SNS (b = .46, p < .001), envy on SNS was positively associated with both cyberbullying perpetration (b = .54, p < .001) and cyberbullying victimization (b = .37, p < .001), and cyberbullying victimization was positively associated with cyberbullying perpetration (b = .45, p < .001). The bootstrapping results indicated that the association between SCO and cyberbullying perpetration was mediated by envy on SNS: the indirect effect = .252, SE = .03, p < .001, 95% CI = [.202, 306], and the association between SCO and cyberbullying victimization was mediated by envy on SNS: the indirect effect = .171, SE = .03, p < .001, 95% CI = [.122, 227]. These findings supported H_2a and H_2b.

For the moderating role of body satisfaction, SCO significantly interacted with body satisfaction on envy on SNS (b = –.19, p < .001), indicating that higher levels of body satisfaction weakened (negatively moderated) the positive direct effect of SCO on envy on SNS. The results of a simple slope test (see Figure 4) indicated that when body satisfaction was equal to M − 1SD, the direct effect of SCO on envy on SNS was .555 (p < .001); when body satisfaction equaled M, the direct effect was .407 (p < .001); and when body satisfaction was equal to M + 1SD, the direct effect was .194 (p < .001). Moreover, increased levels of body satisfaction weakened the indirect effects of SCO on cyberbullying perpetration and victimization via the mediating effect of envy on SNS. For the former, when body satisfaction equaled M − 1SD, the mediating effect = .315, SE = .05, p < .001, 95% CI = [.226, 419]; when body satisfaction equaled M, the mediating effect = .231, SE = .04, p < .001, 95% CI = [.164, 310]; and when body satisfaction equaled M + 1SD, the mediating effect = .110, SE = .03, p < .001, 95% CI = [.055, 180]. For the latter, when body satisfaction equaled M − 1SD, the mediating effect = .215, SE = .04, p < .001, 95% CI = [.150, .287]; when body satisfaction was equal to M, the mediating effect = .157, SE = .03, p < .001, 95% CI = [.108, 214]; and when body satisfaction equaled M + 1SD, the mediating effect = .075, SE = .02, p < .001, 95% CI = [.036, 126]. These results supported H₃ and proposed the moderated mediation model.

Figure 4.

Simple slope analysis of the moderating effect of body satisfaction. Envy on SNS as a function of social comparison orientation and body satisfaction.

Discussion

The total-effect model indicated that SCO was a risk predictor for cyberbullying perpetration and victimization among Chinese adolescents, which supported H₁. This result supported the SCT (Festinger, 1954; Gerber et al., 2018) and was consistent with the conclusions reached in a study set in an offline environment (Stasio et al., 2016). Furthermore, in the total-effect model, cyberbullying perpetration was positively associated with cyberbullying victimization. This finding supported previous studies which suggested a violent cycle of cyberbullying perpetration and victimization (e.g., Chapin & Coleman, 2017).

To determine how SCO predicted cyberbullying perpetration and victimization, we tested the mediating effect of envy on SNS between SCO and cyberbullying perpetration and victimization by extending the SCT (Festinger, 1954) and Tesser’s (1988) comparison process to the domain of social networking sites. The results revealed that envy on SNS played a partial mediating role in the effect of SCO on cyberbullying perpetration and victimization, supporting H_2a and H_2b.

To further explore when SCO predicted cyberbullying perpetration and victimization, we tested the moderating effect of body satisfaction between SCO and cyberbullying perpetration and victimization by extending the SCT (Festinger, 1954) to the domain of social networking sites. The moderated mediation model revealed that higher levels of body satisfaction weakened the direct effect of SCO on envy on SNS and further weakened the indirect effect of SCO on cyberbullying perpetration and victimization, supporting H₃.

The Mediating Role of Envy on SNS

Supporting our hypotheses, envy on SNS played a mediating role in the effect of SCO on cyberbullying perpetration and victimization, thus also supporting the comparison process (Tesser, 1988), which suggests that feelings of envy can mediate social comparisons and some harming behaviors. These results indicated that individuals with higher levels of SCO were more likely to engage in upward social comparison, and thus experienced more negative emotions such as envy, which increased hostility and aggression, and eventually the risk of cyberbullying perpetration and victimization. These findings were consistent with previous studies that showed the mediating effect of envy on the association of social comparison with gossip about SNS friends (Latif et al., 2020).

First, the mediating model indicated that SCO was positively associated with envy on SNS, which supported the SCT (Festinger, 1954) that originally suggested that upward social comparison is an important index to induce envy. This finding was also consistent with some previous empirical studies that explored the relationship between social comparison and envy online (Latif et al., 2020; Park & Baek, 2018; Pera, 2018; Wang, Wang et al., 2020). People tend to edit their digital information to maintain a positive self-presentation and show their ideal life and positive self-image on SNS (Morin-Major et al., 2016). Therefore, individuals with a strong SCO often evaluate themselves negatively (Chatard et al., 2017), and thus engage more in upward social comparison on SNS and experience more feelings of envy. Second, envy on SNS is an important predictor of cyberbullying perpetration, a finding that is consistent with previous studies that tested the association of envy with aggressive behavior (Kokkinos et al., 2020; Stockdale et al., 2015). That is, envy is a hostile emotion that can increase the possibility of harmful behaviors toward others on SNS (Latif et al., 2020). Third, envy on SNS is also a strong predictor of cyberbullying victimization. On the one hand, feelings of envy can increase the fear of missing out, and thus trigger problematic and excessive internet use (Wang, Wang et al., 2019), further increasing the opportunities to be cyberbullied by others (Chen et al., 2016). On the other hand, feelings of envy are harmful to individuals’ self-esteem (Ng et al., 2019) and prosocial behavior (Yu et al., 2018), and they increase anxiety and depression (Wang, Wang et al., 2020), which further increases the risk of cyberbullying victimization (Casper & Card, 2016; Chen et al., 2016; Kokkinos & Antoniadou, 2019).

The Moderating Role of Body Satisfaction

Supporting our expectation, the results indicated that body satisfaction had a significant moderating effect on the association of SCO with envy on SNS, and further moderated the indirect effect of SCO on cyberbullying perpetration and victimization.

First, high levels of body satisfaction weakened the direct effect of SCO on envy on SNS, in that individuals with a strong SCO were more likely to experience feelings of envy on SNS when they had low levels of body satisfaction. This result supported the SCT (Festinger, 1954). It was also consistent with previous studies that found that a positive self-evaluation weakened the adverse effect of social comparison on feelings of envy (Latif et al., 2020; Zhang, 2020). Individuals who were satisfied with their appearance and body often possessed positive self-schemas and self-esteem (Donaghue, 2009; Fuller-Tyszkiewicz et al., 2019), which protected them from the adverse effects of upward social comparison, thus avoiding negative emotions such as envy (Zhang, 2020).

Second, high levels of body satisfaction weakened the indirect effect of SCO on cyberbullying perpetration via envy on SNS as a mediator, in that when people with a strong SCO were satisfied with their bodies, they were less likely to experience feelings of envy on SNS, and thus were less likely to cyberbully others. Due to positive self-evaluation, individuals with a strong SCO engaged in less upward social comparison or perceived fewer differences between themselves and others, and therefore experienced fewer feelings of envy on SNS (Van de Ven, 2017). Moreover, envy is a social emotion correlated with hostile tendencies (Rentzsch et al., 2015) and aggressive behaviors, such as relational aggression (Kokkinos et al., 2020) and cyberbullying perpetration (Stockdale et al., 2015). Therefore, higher levels of body satisfaction ameliorate the adverse and indirect effect of SCO on cyberbullying perpetration via envy.

Third, higher levels of body satisfaction weakened the indirect effect of SCO on cyberbullying victimization via envy on SNS in that individuals who were satisfied with their bodies were less likely to be adversely influenced by SCO, and thus experienced fewer feelings of envy on SNS, which decreased the likelihood that they would experience harmful psychological consequences and problematic behaviors, such as anxiety and depression (Wang, Wang et al., 2020), hostile tendencies (Rentzsch et al., 2015), and problematic smartphone use (Wang, Wang et al., 2019), and increased their engagement in prosocial behaviors (Yu et al., 2018). All these outcomes decreased the risk of cyberbullying victimization (Baldry et al., 2019; Guo, 2016; Kokkinos & Antoniadou, 2019). Therefore, the adverse and indirect effect of SCO on cyberbullying victimization via envy on SNS is weakened by higher levels of body satisfaction.

Limitations and Implications

The current study has several limitations. First, it does not distinguish between different types of envy, such as malicious envy or benign envy (Latif et al., 2020). Thus, future studies should explore the roles of malicious envy and benign envy in the relationship between social comparison and cyberbullying perpetration and victimization. Second, this study only tested the moderating effect of body satisfaction between SCO and cyberbullying perpetration and victimization. Future research should examine the moderating role of satisfaction with other aspects that could be displayed online, such as socioeconomic status, interpersonal relationships, shopping, or traveling. Third, this study did not distinguish between the associations of SCO with cyberbullying perpetration and victimization on different online social platforms due to the different functions and features of each platform. Future studies should explore the adverse effects of social comparisons on different online social platforms on cyberbullying perpetration and victimization. Fourth, our sample comprised only adolescents from the mainland of China, limiting the generalizability of the results. China is a collectivist society that emphasizes interpersonal relationships (Wang, Gao et al., 2020), hence adolescents are more likely to safeguard good interpersonal relationships in Chinese society than in individualistic societies. However, given aspects of the nature of the internet (such as anonymity, absence of a delimited spatiotemporal framework, and lack of adult supervision), adolescents in a collectivist society are more likely to bully others online. For this reason, future studies should collect and analyze data from different cultural groups.

However, the current study has important theoretical and practical value. The current study identified the conditions under which a strong SCO increased the risk of cyberbullying perpetration and victimization. A more nuanced matrix of factors involved in cyberbullying is therefore created, which provides useful and important insights into this ever-growing form of interpersonal violence. Moreover, our findings have enriched and improved the framework of SCT and contributed to the literature on the behavioral outcomes of social comparison, which previously only focused on aggressive behavior and bullying perpetration and victimization caused by social comparison in offline settings (Lee et al., 2020; Stasio et al., 2016). To our knowledge, this is the first study that shows that body satisfaction can moderate the associations of social comparison with cyberbullying perpetration and victimization. Further, our study revealed that SCO increased the risk of cyberbullying perpetration and victimization via the triggering of increased levels of envy on SNS and that higher levels of body satisfaction weakened the adverse indirect effect of SCO on cyberbullying perpetration and victimization. Thus, two types of interventions could reduce the risk of cyberbullying perpetration and victimization among individuals with high levels of SCO, namely regulating levels of envy and increasing levels of body satisfaction. Regarding the former, effective psychological interventions aimed at regulating envy levels would adjust individuals’ perception and beliefs toward online groups and strengthen their online social identity to decrease malicious envy and increase benign envy which would in turn decrease harmful behaviors and strengthen self-improvement intention (Latif et al., 2020). Regarding the latter, effective psychological interventions aimed at promoting body satisfaction would encourage positive reflections on appearance, functionality, and self (Mulgrew et al., 2019) and could make use of cognitive behavioral therapy and an e-health platform containing a series of brief video activities, including gratitude tasks and mindfulness techniques (Fuller-Tyszkiewicz et al., 2019).

Footnotes

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

Funding

The author(s) disclosed receipt of the following financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article: This research was sponsored by the International Research Cooperation Seed Fund of Beijing University of Technology (No. 2021B30).

ORCID iDs

Jingyu Geng

Pengcheng Wang

Author Biographies

Jingyu Geng, MS, is a PhD student of Department of Psychology in Renmin University of China. Her research takes on cyberbullying, internet addiction, smart phone addiction, personality, and parenting.

Yuhui Wang, PhD, is a PhD of Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences in Beijing University of Technology. Her research takes on social network site using and body image.

Hongxia Wang, MS, is a PhD student of Department of Psychology in Renmin University of China. Her research takes on internet deviant behavior.

Pengcheng Wang, PhD, is a PhD of School of Education in Renmin University of China. His research takes on cyberbullying, internet addiction, smart phone addiction, phubbing, personality, and parenting.

Li Lei, PhD, is a Professor of School of Education in Renmin University of China. His research experiences have focused on developmental psychology and cyber psychology.

References

Ansary

N. S.

(2019). Cyberbullying: Concepts, theories, and correlates informing evidence-based best practices for prevention. Aggression and Violent Behavior , 50, 101343. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.avb.2019.101343

Baldry

A. C.

, Sorrentino

, & Farrington

D. P.

(2019). Cyberbullying and cybervictimization versus parental supervision, monitoring and control of adolescents’ online activities. Children and Youth Services Review , 96, 302-307. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2018.11.058

Błażek

, & Besta

(2012). Self-concept clarity and religious orientations: Prediction of purpose in life and self-esteem. Journal of Religion and Health , 51(3), 947-960. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10943-010-9407-y

Brandenberg

, Ozimek

, Bierhoff

H. W.

, & Janker

(2019). The relation between use intensity of private and professional SNS, social comparison, self-esteem, and depressive tendencies in the light of self-regulation. Behaviour & Information Technology , 38(4-6), 578-591. https://doi.org/10.1080/0144929X.2018.1545049

Brochado

, Soares

, & Fraga

(2017). A scoping review on studies of cyberbullying prevalence among adolescents. Trauma, Violence & Abuse , 18(5), 523-531. https://doi.org/10.1177/1524838016641668

Cash

T. F.

(2000). Multidimensional body–self relations questionnaire (MBSRQ) . American Psychological Association and Oxford University Press.

Casper

D. M.

, & Card

N. A.

(2016). Overt and relational victimization: A meta-analytic review of their overlap and associations with social-psychological adjustment. Child Development , 88, 466-483. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.12621

Chan

H. C.

, & Wong

D. S. W.

(2015). Traditional school bullying and cyberbullying in Chinese societies: Prevalence and a review of the whole-school intervention approach. Aggression and Violent Behavior , 23, 98-108. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.avb.2015.05.010

Chapin

, & Coleman

(2017). The cycle of cyberbullying: Some experience required. The Social Science Journal , 54, 314-318. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.soscij.2017.03.004

10.

Chatard

, Bocage-Barthélémy

, Selimbegović

, & Guimond

(2017). The woman who wasn’t there: Converging evidence that subliminal social comparison affects self-evaluation. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology , 73, 1-13. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2017.05.005

11.

Chen

, Ho

S. S.

, & Lwin

M. O.

(2016). A meta-analysis of factors predicting cyberbullying perpetration and victimization: From the social cognitive and media effects approach. New Media & Society , 19, 1194-1213. https://doi.org/10.1177/1461444816634037

12.

Cho

, & Lee

J. R.

(2020). Joint growth trajectories of bullying perpetration and victimization among Korean adolescents: Estimating a second-order growth mixture model-factor-of-curves with low self-control and opportunity correlates. Crime & Delinquency , 66(9), 1296-1337. https://doi.org/10.1177/0011128719890271

13.

Choi

, & Kruis

N. E.

(2019). The effects of life domains on cyberbullying and bullying: Testing the generalizability of Agnew’s integrated general theory. Crime & Delinquency , 65(6), 772-800. https://doi.org/10.1177/0011128718814860

14.

Choi

, Johnson

D. W.

, & Johnson

(2011). Relationship among cooperative learning experiences, social interdependence, children aggression, victimization, and prosocial behaviors. Journal of Applied Social Psychology , 41, 976-1003. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1559-1816.2011.00744.x

15.

Chu

, & Fan

(2017). Revision of the revised cyber bullying inventory among junior high school students. Chinese Journal of Clinical Psychology , 25(6), 1031-1034.

16.

Chu

, Fan

, Liu

, & Zhou

(2018). Cyberbullying victimization and symptoms of depression and anxiety among Chinese adolescents: Examining hopelessness as a mediator and self-compassion as a moderator. Computers in Human Behavior , 86, 377-386. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2018.04.039

17.

Cross

, Barnes

, Papageorgiou

, Hadwen

, Hearn

, & Lester

(2015). A social-ecological framework for understanding and reducing cyberbullying behaviours. Aggression and Violent Behavior , 23, 109-117. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.avb.2015.05.016

18.

Donaghue

(2009). Body satisfaction, sexual self-schemas and subjective well-being in women. Body Image , 6(1), 37-42. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bodyim.2008.08.002

19.

Engeln

, Loach

, Imundo

M. N.

, & Zola

(2020). Compared to Facebook, Instagram use causes more appearance comparison and lower body satisfaction in college women. Body Image , 34, 38-45. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bodyim.2020.04.007

20.

Festinger

(1954). A theory of social comparison processes. Human Relations , 7, 117-140. https://doi.org/10.1177/001872675400700202

21.

Fuller-Tyszkiewicz

, Richardson

, Lewis

, Linardon

, Mills

, Juknaitis

, Lewis

, Coulson

, O’Donnell

, Arulkadacham

, Ware

, & Krug

(2019). A randomized trial exploring mindfulness and gratitude exercises as ehealth-based micro-interventions for improving body satisfaction. Computers in Human Behavior , 95, 58-65. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2019.01.028

22.

Gaffney

, Farrington

D. P.

, Espelage

D. L.

, & Ttofi

M. M.

(2019). Are cyberbullying intervention and prevention programs effective? A systematic and meta-analytical review. Aggression and Violent Behavior , 45, 134-153. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.avb.2018.07.002

23.

Gerber

J. P.

, Wheeler

, & Suls

(2018). A social comparison theory meta-analysis 60+ years on. Psychological Bulletin , 144(2), 177-197. https://doi.org/10.1037/bul0000127

24.

Gibbons

F. X.

, & Buunk

B. P.

(1999). Individual differences in social comparison: Development of a scale of social comparison orientation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 76, 129-142. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.76.1.129

25.

Greenwood

(2017). Social comparison theory. In P. Rössler (Ed.), The international encyclopedia of media effects . https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118783764.wbieme0089

26.

Guo

(2016). A meta-analysis of the predictors of cyberbullying perpetration and victimization. Psychology in the Schools , 53, 432-453. https://doi.org/10.1002/pits.21914

27.

Hinduja

, & Patchin

J. W.

(2015). Bullying beyond the schoolyard: Preventing and responding to cyberbullying (2nd ed.). SAGE Publications.

28.

Kokkinos

C. M.

, & Antoniadou

(2019). Cyber-bullying and cyber-victimization among undergraduate student teachers through the lens of the general aggression model. Computers in Human Behavior , 98, 59-68. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2019.04.007

29.

Kokkinos

C. M.

, Kountouraki

, Voulgaridou

, & Markos

(2020). Understanding the association between big five and relational aggression: The mediating role of social goals and friendship jealousy. Personality and Individual Differences , 160, 109946. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2020.109946

30.

Krasnova

, Widjaja

, Buxmann

, Wenninger

, & Benbasat

(2015). Why following friends can hurt you: An exploratory investigation of the effects of envy on social networking sites among college-age users. Information Systems Research , 26(3), 585-605. https://doi.org/10.1287/isre.2015.0588

31.

Latif

, Weng

, Pitafi

A. H.

, Ali

, Siddiqui

A. W.

, Malik

M. Y.

, & Latife

(2020). Social comparison as a double-edged sword on social media: The role of envy type and online social identity. Telematics and Informatics , 101470. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tele.2020.101470

32.

Lee

J. M.

, Hong

J. S.

, Yoon

, Perguero

A. A.

, & Seok

H. J.

(2017). Correlates of adolescent cyberbullying in south Korea in multiple contexts: A review of the literature and implications for research and school practice. Deviant Behavior , 39, 293-308. https://doi.org/10.1080/01639625.2016.1269568

33.

Lee

, Ha

J. H.

, & Jue

(2020). Structural equation modeling and the effect of perceived academic inferiority, socially prescribed perfectionism, and parents’ forced social comparison on adolescents’ depression and aggression. Children and Youth Services Review , 108, 104649. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2019.104649

34.

Lee

Y. H.

, Cheng

C. Y.

, & Lin

S. S. J.

(2014). A latent profile analysis of self-control and self-esteem and the grouping effect on adolescent quality of life across two consecutive years. Social Indicators Research , 117(2), 523-539. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11205-013-0360-5

35.

Lianos

, & McGrath

(2017). Can the general theory of crime and general strain theory explain cyberbullying perpetration? Crime & Delinquency, 64(5), 1-27. https://doi.org/10.1177/0011128717714204

36.

Lin

, & Utz

(2015). The emotional responses of browsing Facebook: Happiness, envy, and the role of tie strength. Computers in Human Behavior , 52, 29-38. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2015.04.064

37.

Lin

, van de Ven

, & Utz

(2018). What triggers envy on social network sites? A comparison between shared experiential and material purchases. Computers in Human Behavior , 85, 271-281. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2018.03.049

38.

Lizut

(2019). Cyberbullying victims, perpetrators, and bystanders. In Marzano

, & Lizut

(Eds.), Cyberbullying and the critical importance of educational resources for prevention and intervention (pp. 144-172). https://doi.org/10.4018/978-1-5225-8076-8.ch005

39.

Lozano-Blasco

, Cortés-Pascual

, & Latorre-Martínez

(2020). Being a cybervictim and a cyberbully – the duality of cyberbullying: A meta-analysis. Computers in Human Behavior , 111, 106444. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2020.106444

40.

Morin-Major

J. K.

, Marin

M. -F.

, Durand

, Wan

, Juster

R. -P.

, & Lupien

S. J.

(2016). Facebook behaviors associated with diurnal cortisol in adolescents: Is befriending stressful?. Psychoneuroendocrinology , 63, 238-246. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psyneuen.2015.10.005

41.

Mulgrew

K. E.

, Prichard

, Stalley

, & Lim

M. S. C.

(2019). Effectiveness of a multi-session positive self, appearance, and functionality program on women’s body satisfaction and response to media. Body Image , 31, 102-111. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bodyim.2019.08.012

42.

J. C. K.

, Cheung

V. W. T.

, & Lauc

V. C. Y.

(2019). Unpacking the differential effects of dispositional envy on happiness among adolescents and young adults: The mediated moderation role of self-esteem. Personality and Individual Differences , 149, 244-249. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2019.06.011

43.

Ozimek

, & Förster

(2017). The impact of self-regulatory states and traits on Facebook use: Priming materialism and social comparisons. Computers in Human Behavior , 71, 418-427. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2017.01.056

44.

Park

S. Y.

, & Baek

Y. M.

(2018). Two faces of social comparison on Facebook: The interplay between social comparison orientation, emotions, and psychological well-being. Computers in Human Behavior , 79, 83-93. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2017.10.028

45.

Patchin

J. W.

, & Hinduja

(2010). Cyberbullying and self-esteem. Journal of School Health , 80(12), 614-621. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1746-1561.2010.00548.x

46.

Pera

(2018). Psychopathological processes involved in social comparison, depression, and envy on Facebook. Frontiers in Psychology , 9, 22-26. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00022

47.

Peter

, & Petermann

(2018). Cyberbullying: A concept analysis of defining attributes and additional influencing factors. Computers in Human Behavior , 86, 350-366. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2018.05.013

48.

Peter

, & Valkenburg

P. M.

(2014). Does exposure to sexually explicit internet material increase body dissatisfaction? A longitudinal study. Computers in Human Behavior , 36, 297-307. https://doi.org/0.1016/j.chb.2014.03.071

49.

Rentzsch

, Schröder-Abé

, & Schütz

(2015). Envy mediates the relation between low academic self-esteem and hostile tendencies. Journal of Research in Personality , 58, 143-153. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrp.2015.08.001

50.

Rozgonjuk

, Ryan

, Kuljus

J. K.

, Täht

, & Scott

G. G.

(2019). Social comparison orientation mediates the relationship between neuroticism and passive Facebook use. Cyberpsychology: Journal of Psychosocial Research on Cyberspace , 13(1). https://doi.org/10.5817/CP2019-1-2

51.

Schenk

A. M.

, Fremouw

W. J.

, & Keelan

C. M.

(2013). Characteristics of college cyberbullies. Computers in Human Behavior , 29(6), 2320-2327. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2013.05.013

52.

Schmuck

, Karsay

, Matthes

, & Stevic

(2019). “Looking up and feeling down”. the influence of mobile social networking site use on upward social comparison, self-esteem, and well-being of adult smartphone users. Telematics and Informatics , 42, 101240. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tele.2019.101240

53.

Smith

P. K.

, Mahdavi

, Carvalho

, Fisher

, Russell

, & Tippett

(2008). Cyberbullying: Its nature and impact in secondary school pupils. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry , 49, 376-385. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7610.2007.01846.x

54.

Smith

R. H.

, & Kim

S. H.

(2007). Comprehending envy. Psychological Bulletin , 133(1), 46-64. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.133.1.46

55.

Sourander

, Klomek

A. B.

, Ikonen

, Lindroos

, & Helenius

(2010). Psychosocial risk factors associated with cyberbullying among adolescents: A population-based study. Archives of General Psychiatry , 67(7), 720-728. https://doi.org/10.1001/archgenpsychiatry.2010.79

56.

Stasio

M. R. D.

, Savage

, & Burgos

(2016). Social comparison, competition and teacher–student relationships in junior high school classrooms predicts bullying and victimization. Journal of Adolescence , 53, 207-216. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2016.10.002

57.

Stockdale

L. A.

, Coyne

S. M.

, Nelson

D. A.

, & Erickson

D. H.

(2015). Borderline personality disorder features, jealousy, and cyberbullying in adolescence. Personality and Individual Differences , 83, 148-153. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2015.04.003

58.

Sung

L. K.

, & Park

T. Y.

(2016). The effects of pay differential on social undermining and performance via envy. Academy of Management Annual Meeting Proceedings , (1), 13034. https://doi.org/10.5465/AMBPP.2016.13034abstract

59.

Tai

, Narayanan

, & Mcallister

D. I.

(2012). Envy as pain: Rethinking the nature of envy and its implications for employees and organizations. Academy of Management Review , 37(1), 107-129. https://doi.org/10.5465/amr.2009.0484

60.

Tesser

(1988). Toward a self-evaluation maintenance model of social behavior. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology , 21, 181-227. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0065-2601(08)60227-0

61.

Topcu

Ç.

, & Erdur-Baker

Ö.

(2010). The revised cyber bullying inventory (RCBI): Validity and reliability studies. Procedia Social and Behavioral Sciences , 5, 660-664. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2010.07.161

62.

Van de Ven

(2017). Envy and admiration: Emotion and motivation following upward social comparison. Cognition and Emotion , 31(1), 193-200. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699931.2015.1087972

63.

Vecchio

R. P.

(2000). Negative emotion in the workplace: Employee jealousy and envy. International Journal of Stress Management , 7(3), 161-179. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1009592430712

64.

Wang

, Wang

, & Shi

(2006). Reliability and validation of the social comparison orientation scale. Chinese Mental Health Journal , 20(5), 302-305.

65.

Wang

, Wang

, Nie

, Zeng

, Liu

, Wang

, Guo

, & Lei

(2019). Envy and problematic smartphone use: The mediating role of FOMO and the moderating role of student-student relationship. Personality and Individual Differences , 146, 136-142. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2019.04.013

66.

Wang

, Wang

, Hu

, Wang

, Lei

, & Jiang

(2020). Upward social comparison on mobile social media and depression: The mediating role of envy and the moderating role of marital quality. Journal of Affective Disorders , 270, 143-149. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2020.03.173

67.

Wang

, Xie

, Wang

, Lei

, Hu

, & Jiang

(2019). Cyberbullying and depression among Chinese college students: A moderated mediation model of social anxiety and neuroticism. Journal of Affective Disorders , 256(1), 54-61. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2019.05.061

68.

Wang

, Gao

, Yang

, Zhao

, & Wang

(2020). Parental phubbing and adolescents’ depressive symptoms: Self-esteem and perceived social support as moderators. Journal of Youth and Adolescence , 49(2), 427-437. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-10019-01185-x

69.

Wang

, Yang

, Wang

, & Lei

(2019). Childhood maltreatment, moral disengagement, and adolescents’ cyberbullying perpetration: Fathers’ and mothers’ moral disengagement as moderators. Computers in Human Behavior , 95, 48-57. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2019.01.031

70.

, Hao

, & Shi

(2018). Dispositional envy inhibits prosocial behavior in adolescents with high self-esteem. Personality and Individual Differences , 122, 127-133. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2017.10.022

71.

Zequinão

M. A.

, De Medeiros

, Rosário

, H. R.

, Pelegrini

, Lopes

, Pereira

, & Cardoso

F. L.

(2017). Association between body dissatisfaction and bullying in children of socioeconomically vulnerable areas. Porto Biomedical Journal , 2(6), 260-264. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pbj.2017.04.010

72.

Zhang

(2020). The effects of upward social comparison on workplace envy: Moderate of gender identification and Self-esteem. American Journal of Industrial and Business Management , 10(3), 531-543. https://doi.org/10.4236/ajibm.2020.103036

Social Comparison Orientation and Cyberbullying Perpetration and Victimization: Roles of Envy on Social Networking Sites and Body Satisfaction

Abstract

Keywords

Introduction

Literature Review

SCO and Cyberbullying Perpetration and Victimization

Envy on SNS as a Mediator

Body Satisfaction as a Moderator

The Current Study

Proposed moderated mediation model.

Methods

Participants

Measures

Statistical Analyses

Results

Descriptive Statistics and Correlation Analysis

Descriptive Statistics and Correlation Matrix of All Variables.

Testing for the Total Effect of SCO on Cyberbullying Perpetration and Victimization

Total model M1 (n = 941).

Testing for the Moderated Mediation Model

Moderated mediation model M2 (n = 941).

Simple slope analysis of the moderating effect of body satisfaction. Envy on SNS as a function of social comparison orientation and body satisfaction.

Discussion

The Mediating Role of Envy on SNS

The Moderating Role of Body Satisfaction

Limitations and Implications

Footnotes

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

Funding

ORCID iDs

Author Biographies

References

Total model M₁ (n = 941).

Moderated mediation model M₂ (n = 941).