Media Use and Men’s Approval of Intimate Partner Violence in Honduras

Abstract

Intimate partner violence (IPV) is a widespread issue that affects millions of individuals each year. Prior research suggests that IPV approval is associated with an increased likelihood of IPV perpetration. However, scant research has examined predictors of IPV approval, and even less has examined the predictors of IPV approval in Latin America. Social cognitive theory describes the acquisition of ideas, values, attitudes, and behaviors through social observation, including through media. This study uses social cognitive theory to examine the effects of media use on men’s approval of IPV in Honduras, while controlling for demographic variables and IPV risk factors. We hypothesized that greater engagement with media (via television, radio, and newspapers or magazines) would be associated with decreases in the approval of IPV. Using ordinal logistic regression, we analyzed data from the Men’s Survey Module of the 2011–2012 Honduras Demographic and Health Survey. The final sample included 4,760 currently partnered men. Results suggest that listening to the radio one or more times per week was associated with greater IPV approval, while newspaper/magazine and television use were not significantly associated with IPV approval. Education, marital status, increased age at first cohabitation, and having a female partner or someone else making decisions about earnings were all protective against IPV approval. Further investigation into the content of Honduran radio and other media is called for in order to inform interventions to reduce acceptance of IPV.

Keywords

intimate partner violence Honduras demographic and health survey domestic violence women media

Intimate partner violence (IPV) is a major public health problem that impacts the physical and mental health of many women around the globe (Garcia-Moreno et al., 2006). A World Health Organization study conducted in 15 countries found between 15% and 71% of women had experienced IPV in their lifetime (Garcia-Moreno et al., 2006). IPV against women is associated with negative maternal and child health outcomes. More specifically, women who have experienced IPV have more unwanted births, lower contraceptive use, higher rates of sexually transmitted infections, lower likelihood of receiving antenatal care in the first trimester, and a significantly higher likelihood of nonlive births (Kishor & Johnson, 2004). Children of women who have experienced IPV are less likely to be fully vaccinated and more likely to die before their fifth birthday (Bair-Merritt et al., 2008; Sabarwal et al., 2011; Taft et al., 2015). In some cases, though not all, domestic violence is negatively correlated with maternal and child nutritional status (Kishor & Johnson, 2004). IPV is also related to depression, suicide, and other mental health conditions (Golding, 1999).

Although research on IPV has increased over the past 40 years, relatively little research explores the attitudes underlying IPV (Oyediran, 2016), and even less explores IPV attitudes in Latin America. A 2012 systematic review on IPV attitudes internationally included no studies of Latin American countries (Waltermaurer, 2012). However, one recent study on IPV attitudes in Latin America and the Caribbean suggested that Honduras had one of the highest rates of approval of IPV of any Latin American country (Bucheli & Rossi, 2019). IPV approval in communities has been shown to increase the likelihood of IPV perpetration, and reduce victim reporting, help seeking, and the likelihood of community or criminal justice responses to the abuse (Waltermaurer, 2012). Given the serious consequences of IPV approval, as well as the paucity of research on IPV attitudes in Honduras, it is important to examine the factors that predict men’s attitudes toward IPV in Honduras.

Demographic Factors Associated With IPV Attitudes

Studies suggest that demographic factors can significantly predict IPV attitudes internationally. Some international studies find that older age is a risk factor for IPV approval (Al-Nsour et al., 2009), while others suggest that older age may be protective (Rani & Bonu, 2008; Rani et al., 2004) or unrelated to IPV approval (Jewkes et al., 2002). However, younger age appears to be a significant risk factor for approval of IPV across multiple countries (Waltermaurer, 2012). Additionally, empirical work in Latin America suggests that compared to cohabiting or being single, being married is associated with a lower prevalence of IPV (Flake & Forste, 2006). Relatedly, older age at first union also appears to be a protective factor against IPV approval in multiple low- and middle-income countries (LMICs; Al-Nsour et al., 2009; Pierotti, 2013).

In general, higher socioeconomic status appears to be a protective factor against IPV prevalence and approval in many countries, including some Latin American countries (Flake & Forste, 2006; Rani & Bonu, 2008; Rani et al., 2004; Uthman et al., 2009). Compared to living in a rural residence, living in an urban residence has been shown to be protective against approval of IPV in some countries (Al-Nsour et al., 2009; Uthman et al., 2009), but not others (Jewkes et al., 2002). Male employment can serve as a protective factor against IPV (Al-Nsour et al., 2009), though employed women may be more likely to justify IPV (Rani & Bonu, 2008; Rani et al., 2004). However, women who have a say in household monetary decisions may be less likely to experience or justify IPV (Lawoko, 2006; Svec & Andic, 2018; Zegenhagen et al., 2019).

Though most empirical work shows increased education to be protective against IPV approval, results vary across countries. Education level is protective against approval of IPV across many LMICs in Africa, Asia, and eastern Europe (Koenig et al., 2003; Pierotti, 2013; Uthman et al., 2009; Rani & Bonu, 2008; Rani et al., 2004). Further, according to a 2012 systematic review, lower education was a consistent risk factor across multiple regions, but was not a significant predictor in Uganda or Nigeria (Waltermaurer, 2012). One study showed education to be a protective factor against IPV approval in Kenya, but a risk factor in Zambia (Lawoko, 2008). The author of this study postulates that differences between Kenya and Zambia may be due to differences in how the education offered in these two countries treats issues of gender equality. This explanation fits with Rani et al.’s (2004) supposition that the content of education may influence behavioral modeling which, in turn, influences IPV attitudes. These results suggest it is important to assess country-specific relationships between education and IPV approval in order to inform educational intervention.

Media Use and Approval of IPV

Social cognitive theory posits that ideas, values, attitudes, and behaviors are acquired through social observation, including observation mediated by television and radio systems (Bandura, 2002). According to this theory, people adjust their attitudes not only in response to positive and negative consequences they personally experience but also in response to consequences, social pressures, and norms they observe being experienced by others (Bandura, 2003). Applied to media use, if media consumers are exposed to violent content that is socially endorsed and promoted, they will be more likely to approve of and engage in violence. On the other hand, if media content discourages violence and/or exposes consequences associated with violence, media consumers will be less likely to approve of and engage in violence. Relatedly, Akers’s social learning theory (1973) holds that frequency, duration, priority, and intensity of social exposure to a behavior, including through media sources, are important determinants of behavioral adoption (Akers, 1992; Akers & Jensen, 2006). Therefore, these factors may be important to consider when examining the relationship between media exposure and IPV approval.

Previous studies have used social cognitive theory to examine the effects of media access and use on attitudes toward violence, gender attitudes, and IPV approval (Arias, 2019; Chatterjee & Pillai, 2018). For example, among adolescents in Turkey, exposure to violence through media increased approval of violence, which in turn increased the likelihood of behaving violently (Avci & Gucray, 2013). From a social cognitive theory lens, the authors concluded that adolescents may observe positive representations of violence in the media and formulate a cognitive schema in which violence is an acceptable problem-solving strategy. In contrast, Lee et al. (2010) found that men who were exposed to sexually violent clips framed within a criminal context expressed less traditional gender stereotypes. Using social cognitive theory, the authors postulated that when sex-based violence is associated with negative consequences in the media, male viewers may develop sympathy toward women and become more aware of their own gender stereotypes. These studies suggest that media exposure can change attitudes toward violence, for better or for worse.

Some studies suggest that in areas where patriarchal ideas and behaviors dominate, media sources can provide alternative role models to those directly observed through social interactions, facilitating a shift toward more egalitarian attitudes (Chatterjee & Pillai, 2018; Jensen & Oster, 2009). However, studies examining the effects of media use on approval of IPV have found country-level variation. For example, Pierotti (2013) found that accessing newspaper, television, or radio at least once per week was protective against approval of IPV in 14 of the 25 LMICs studied, not predictive in 10 countries, and a risk factor in India. Other studies conducted in sub-Saharan countries found media use to be protective against IPV approval (Lawoko, 2006, 2008; Uthman et al., 2009). In the majority of cases where media use has been linked to IPV approval, media use has been a protective factor; however, the fact that there are contexts in which media use is a risk factor warrants further investigation.

In addition to variation by country, the effect of media use on IPV approval also varies by media type (Krause et al., 2017). While some studies examine media use as a single variable encompassing use of television, radio, and print media sources (Bucheli & Rossi, 2019; Jesmin, 2015; Pierotti, 2013), studies which separate these three categories frequently find differences between media formats in their relationships to IPV approval. The direction of the effects of each media type is also context specific. For example, in the Niger delta, access to newspaper and radio was associated with a higher risk of IPV approval, while access to television was associated with lower risk of IPV approval (Antai & Antai, 2009). In contrast, for women in Zambia, newspaper/magazine reading was associated with lower IPV approval, whereas radio and television use did not significantly affect IPV approval (Lawoko, 2006). Although few studies have delved deeply into the reasons for this variation between media types, some studies posit that the difference may be due to differences in the amount of violence portrayed (Antai & Antai, 2009).

Very few studies have examined the relationship between media use and IPV attitudes in Latin American countries. However, studies which have examined this relationship have often found media use to be protective against IPV approval. Two Latin American countries, Bolivia and the Dominican Republic, were represented in Pierotti’s study (Pierotti, 2013). In Bolivia, media access showed no relation to rejection of IPV, while in the Dominican Republic, media access was associated with a 48% increase in the odds of rejecting IPV. Likewise, in a sample including 23 Latin American and Caribbean countries, increased frequency of accessing news media was associated with decreased IPV approval (Bucheli & Rossi, 2019). Notably, this study did not analyze countries separately, so potential differences between countries in the relationship between media use and IPV approval cannot be discerned (Bucheli & Rossi, 2019). Both of these studies treat media use/access as a single variable, combining newspaper, radio, television, and other media sources (Bucheli & Rossi, 2019; Pierotti, 2013).

Hypothesis

Given prior evidence of the format-specific and context-specific nature of the association between media use and IPV approval, it is clear that additional studies across diverse countries are needed. Few studies have examined the relationship between media use and IPV approval in Latin America, but no study to date has examined this relationship in Honduras, specifically. This study seeks to address this gap by analyzing the associations of three types of media use—(a) television, (b) radio, and (c) newspapers/magazines—with IPV approval among men in Honduras. Building upon prior research that shows overall trends of media use being a protective factor against IPV approval in Latin American countries (Bucheli & Rossi, 2019; Pierotti, 2013), we hypothesized that more frequent media use in each category will be associated with decreases in IPV approval.

Method

Participants and Procedures

This study used data from the Demographic and Health Survey (DHS) conducted in Honduras between 2011 and 2012. The DHS conducts nationally representative household surveys in developing countries, covering a wide range of population, health, and nutrition indicators. The Honduras 2011–2012 DHS contains an additional Men’s Survey with information about health behaviors and attitudes as well as general demographic indicators. The total sample includes 7,120 respondents. Only respondents currently married or cohabiting were included in the analysis, reducing the sample size to 4,760 men.

Measures

Dependent variable. Men’s approval of IPV was measured with five hypothetical situations posed by the DHS questionnaire: “Is wife beating justified if the wife…(1) goes out without telling her husband? (2) neglects the children? (3) argues with her husband? (4) refuses to have sex with her husband? or (5) burns the food?” (0 = no, 1 = yes). The items were then summed, resulting in a range of 0 to 5, which reflected a count of the number of situations in which the respondent said “yes,” wife beating is justified. The internal consistency of the items was good (Kuder-Richardson 20 = .76).

Media use variables. Frequency of reading the newspaper or magazines (0 = respondent reads the news/magazines less than once a week, 1 = respondent reads the news/magazines at least once a week), frequency of listening to the radio (0 = respondent listens to the radio less than once a week, 1 = respondent listens at least once a week), and frequency of watching television (0 = respondent watches television less than once a week, 1 = respondent watches at least once a week) were all coded as binary variables.

Control variables. Marital status was a binary variable (0 = living together, 1 = married). Respondent educational attainment ranged from 0 to 5 (0 = no education, 1 = incomplete primary education, 2 = complete primary education, 3 = incomplete secondary education, 4 = complete secondary education, and 5 = higher education). Because of the large number of categories, education was treated as continuous. Wealth index was a continuous variable coded by quintiles, with the lowest quintile coded as 1 and the highest coded as 5. Type of residence was coded as 0 for “Rural” and 1 for “Urban.” Respondent age was continuous and measured in years. Employment was coded as a binary variable (0 = unemployed, 1 = employed); self-employment was considered “employed.” Decision-making about the respondents’ earnings was included as a proxy measure for gender equality. Decisions about earnings were measured by three questions (the man makes all decisions about his earnings alone; the man makes these decisions jointly with a spouse; the decisions are entirely made by the wife or by someone besides him), which were coded as a series of dummy variables, with “man makes all decisions” serving as the comparison variable. Age at first cohabitation was continuous and measured in years.

Analytic Approach

Descriptive and preliminary analyses were conducted in Stata version 15.1; all other analyses were conducted in Mplus version 8 (Muthén & Muthén, 1998–2017). We screened our data for outliers and multicollinearity, neither of which were found. Missing data were very few, with the greatest amount of missing data coming from the decisions about earnings variable, which had under 5% missing data. Therefore, to handle missing data, we utilized full information maximum likelihood estimation, which uses all available data and is recognized as a generally unbiased method of handling missing data and tends to provide more accurate estimates than alternative methods, such as listwise deletion (Enders & Bandalos, 2001; Kline, 2016). Following the DHS Guide to Statistics (Croft et al., 2018), we used sample weights—specifically, the weight that corresponds to the men’s survey. Additionally, to account for individuals being clustered within 18 regions of Honduras, we utilized the Type = Complex and Cluster options in Mplus, which uses sandwich estimators to account for within-cluster correlations. We also used maximum likelihood with robust standard errors estimation, which is robust to nonnormality. To test our hypotheses, we ran ordinal logistic regression analyses using 1,000 iterations of Monte Carlo integration, which provided log odds (LO) and odds ratio (OR) coefficients. Model 1 uses only the media variables to predict IPV approval, and Model 2 adds the demographic variables as well as variables that are recognized in the literature to be risk factors for IPV.

Results

Descriptive statistics are presented in Table 1. The dependent variable represents the number of situations (up to five) in which the respondent agreed that IPV is justified. The mean number reported was 0.12. Most men in the sample (93.7%) endorsed no approval for IPV. Respondents in this sample showed low educational attainment, with approximately 75% having completed primary education or less. For media use, 80% of respondents listened to the radio at least once a week, 71% watched TV at least once a week, and 32% read a newspaper or magazine at least once a week. Over half the sample (58%) was cohabitating and 42% were married. About 21% made all decisions about their earnings alone, while 72% decided jointly with a wife/partner, and 7% had a wife/partner or someone else who made those decisions. The average age of respondents was approximately 37 years, and only about 35% lived in urban areas. Mean age at first cohabitation or union was 22, and most men (96.2%) were employed.

Table 1.

Descriptive Statistics, Factors Influencing Justification of IPV Among Men, Honduras, 2011–2012.

Variables	N	%	M	SD	Min	Max
Dependent variable
Justifications of intimate partner violence			0.12	0.54	0	5
Main independent variables
Listens to radio at least once a weekWatches TV at least once a weekReads news or magazine at least once a week	3,8053,3871,522	80.071.232.0
Control variables
Marital statusMarriedCohabiting	1,9992,761	4258
Current age			37.4	10.6	15	59
Wealth indexUrban residenceEmployedWho decides about earningsRespondent aloneRespondent with spouseRespondent’s partner or someone else	1,6564,5789473,245335	34.896.219.968.27.0	2.67	1.4	1	5
Age at first union			21.7	(4.7)	11	50
Educational attainment
No educationIncomplete primaryComplete primaryIncomplete secondaryComplete secondaryHigher	3821,7841,455555338246	8.037.530.611.77.15.2
[N]		[4,760]

Source. Demographic Health Survey, Honduras, 2011–2012.

The coefficients for the ordinal logistic regression analyses are presented in Table 2. In Model 1, reading the newspaper and watching television at least once per week were associated with a decrease in the odds of IPV approval (e.g., moving from approving 0 items to approving 1 item; newspaper: LO = −0.51, OR = 0.60, p < .01; television: LO = −0.21, OR = 0.81, p = .026); however, these results became nonsignificant once sociodemographic control variables were included. In both models, listening to the radio was associated with an increase in the odds of IPV approval. Controlling for sociodemographic variables, listening to the radio at least once per week was associated with an increase in the odds of IPV approval (LO = 0.56, OR = 1.75, p < .01), meaning that listening to the radio was a risk factor of approving of domestic violence. In terms of control variables, each level of increased education was associated with a decrease in the odds of IPV approval (LO = 0.27, OR = 0.76, p < .01). Compared to men making decisions about earnings alone, having the wife or someone else make decisions about earnings was associated with a decrease in the odds of IPV approval (LO = −0.91, OR = 0.40, p < .01). Additionally, compared to cohabitating, being married was associated with a decrease in the odds of IPV approval (LO = −0.52, OR = 0.59, p < .01). Finally, as age at first cohabitation increased by one year, the odds of IPV approval decreased (LO = −0.06, OR = 0.94, p < .01).

Table 2.

Ordinal Logistic Regression Results.

Variable	Model 1				Model 2
	LO	SE	OR	SE	LO	SE	OR	SE
Newspaper	−0.51**	0.15	0.60**	0.09	−0.21	.17	0.81	.14
Radio	0.60**	0.18	1.82**	0.08	0.56**	.19	1.75**	.34
Television	−0.21*	0.09	0.81*	0.08	0.08	.12	1.09	.13
Marital status					−0.52**	.15	0.59**	.09
Wealth index					−0.17	.11	0.84	.09
Urban					0.21	.29	1.23	.35
Age					−0.01	.01	0.99	.01
Employed					−0.38	.42	0.68	.29
Make decisions equally					0.14	.14	1.01	.14
Someone else makes decisions					−0.91**	.34	0.40**	.14
Age at first cohabitation					−0.06**	.02	0.94**	.02
Education					−0.27**	.10	0.76**	.07

Note. Comparison category for “make decisions equally” and “someone else makes decisions” is “the man makes all decisions about his earnings alone.” Men’s sampling weights are accounted for in analysis. Analyses account for all participants being clustered within 18 regions in Honduras.

*p < .05. **p < .01. ***p < .001.

Discussion

The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between media use and IPV approval among men in Honduras. In keeping with prior research conducted in Latin American countries (Bucheli & Rossi, 2019; Pierotti, 2013), we hypothesized that media use—measured by frequency of interacting with television, newspapers, and the radio—would be protective against IPV approval. Contrary to our hypothesis, television and newspaper use did not significantly predict IPV approval after controlling for demographic variables and known IPV risk factors, while radio use was associated with increased IPV approval. While we have not analyzed the mechanisms involved in these associations, we propose potential explanations for our findings, which we recommend be tested by future research.

The finding that radio use is associated with increased risk of IPV approval is concerning, especially given that radio was the most frequently accessed form of media in our sample. Of the men surveyed, 80% reported listening to radio at least once per week. Antai and Antai (2009) also found radio use to be a risk factor for IPV approval in the Niger delta, whereas television use was protective. These authors suggested that the difference between these effects was likely due to different content; specifically, that radio was more likely than television to report news of conflicts in the region, which would model violence and aggression, thus contributing to IPV approval. As Honduras is also a region that has experienced widespread violence in recent years (Dudley & Pachico, 2016), it is possible that a similar dynamic exists. This explanation fits well with the social cognitive theory approach we use in this study. In order to understand this relationship in greater depth, we suggest that future research examine the content of radio programming that is frequently accessed by Honduran men.

Our findings of nonsignificant associations between television use or newspaper/magazine use and IPV approval differ from research findings in Zambia, Bangladesh, and Nigeria (Antai & Antai, 2009; Krause et al., 2017; Lawoko, 2008). Using a social cognitive theory lens, we see multiple potential explanations. First, it is possible that television and newspaper/magazine use was not associated with IPV attitudes because the content portrayed did not model relevant behaviors or attitudes to respondents who used these forms of media. Second, it is possible that these forms of media did model relevant behaviors and attitudes, but these behaviors and attitudes did not differ from other models that respondents were exposed to, and thus use of these media had no significant effect. Investigating these hypotheses would require a study of the content of television, newspapers, and magazines frequently accessed by Honduran men. An alternative explanation is that the Honduran context is different from that of other countries studied, such that social cognitive theory does not apply in the same way to television and newspaper consumption. To further explore this hypothesis, future research might apply a medium theory framework to examine the differences between the interactions of Hondurans with various media formats (Chatterjee & Pillai, 2018; Meyrowitz, 2009).

Investigation of currently available media content and Hondurans’ interactions with media may reveal opportunities for media-related intervention to reduce IPV approval. For example, sponsorship of media programming related to IPV may be appropriate. Previous efforts have used the storylines of radio or television dramas to convey the unacceptability of IPV, with evidence of some success in shifting social norms (Arias, 2019; Paluck et al., 2010; Usdin et al., 2005). However, it is also possible for such campaigns to have unintended perverse effects (Paluck et al., 2010). Therefore, specific interventions must be informed by deeper investigations into the relationship between Honduran media content and social norms.

Regarding our demographic control variables, male education, marital status, increased age at first cohabitation, and having someone else make decisions about earnings were all protective against IPV approval. Given the protective impact of male education and the low overall level of education in the sample, an increased focus on male education may produce lower levels of IPV approval in the Honduran population. Further research into the mechanisms by which education protects against IPV approval may also allow for more targeted intervention within the education system. Along a similar vein, understanding the attributes of men who choose to marry, delay cohabitation, and choose to not make decisions about their earnings may aid researchers in understanding the personal- and/or structural-level factors that protect against IPV.

Limitations and Future Research

This study is not without limitations. A key limitation is the cross-sectional study design, which prevents this study from inferring causality. Additionally, some key control variables are missing from the analysis. While one measure of female decision-making was included, other important female empowerment variables were not available in this dataset. For example, female employment and women’s earnings relative to their partners’ are important measures of female autonomy and have been shown to significantly affect attitudes toward IPV (Linos et al., 2010; Rani & Bonu, 2008). In order to achieve a more complete understanding of IPV approval in Honduras, these variables must be included.

We recommend that future research examine the links between media use, IPV approval, and prevalence of IPV. While this study makes an important contribution in showing the link between men’s radio use and IPV approval in Honduras, the dataset did not provide the means to examine the relationship between IPV approval and actual IPV occurrence. Ideally, research should be done to establish the links between these three variables and compare these relationships across country and cultural context. We also recommend that future research examining these relationships include internet-facilitated media, for which this dataset did not provide information.

Conclusion

The purpose of our study was to examine the effects of media use on men’s approval of IPV in Honduras. Using DHS data, we found radio listening to be a risk factor of IPV approval, while newspaper/magazine and television consumption had no significant association with IPV approval. Our findings suggest potentially fruitful areas of focus for future research in understanding how media use connects to IPV attitudes. We recommend further investigation into the content of Honduran radio and other media and their effects on IPV approval. A better understanding of current media content may reveal opportunities for changes that will affect IPV approval and, thereby, IPV prevalence in the country.

Footnotes

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship and/or publication of this article.

ORCID iDs

Selina Forsyth

Kaitlin P. Ward

Author Biographies

Selina Forsyth, MSW, is a PhD student in the Brown School at Washington University in St. Louis. Her research has focused on domestic violence, child protection, and social service workforce development in low- and middle-income contexts.

Kaitlin P. Ward, MSW, is a PhD student in the joint program in social work and developmental psychology at the University of Michigan. Her research focuses on parental discipline, child maltreatment, and family processes. Within her research, Kaitlin utilizes advanced statistical techniques to elucidate disparities in children’s outcomes.

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