The Role of Sexual Scripts in the Relationship Between Pornography Use and Sexual Coercion

Abstract

Decades of research have examined the association between pornography use and sexual coercion, with the most significant relationships found between more deviant genres of pornography use and sexual violence. However, researchers have yet to provide a comparable body of research examining the theoretical mechanism of this association. One theory that has shown promise in explaining the association between certain variables of pornography use and sexual coercion is the sexual script theory. In this theory, scripts can best be understood as a mechanism through which society defines and disseminates what is acceptable, desirable, and pleasurable sexual conduct. Studies examining the application of the sexual script theory to the association between pornography use and sexual coercion have found that pornography use has a significant indirect effect on sexual coercion and correlates of sexual coercion through sexual scripts. The current study sought to extend this line of inquiry by examining the relationship between pornography use, sexual scripts, and sexual coercion. A structural equation model examining direct and indirect effects of sexual scripts and pornography use on sexually coercive behaviors was run using a sample of 390 college-aged males. Results of the study indicated there were significant direct and indirect effects in the model. Specifically, pornography use, while not directly related to sexually coercive behaviors, had a significant indirect effect on sexual coercion through sexual scripts. These results further support the use of the sexual scripts theory to help explain the relationship between pornography use and sexual coercion.

Keywords

pornography sexual coercion sexual aggression sexual scripts

Pornography use has garnered the attention of researchers over the last several decades. Much of this research was fueled by moral panic, with fears that pornography use is associated with negative outcomes. Of greatest concern, is the possible association between pornography use and sexually coercive behaviors. Sexually coercive behaviors are any behaviors that are acts of pressure, through substances, threats, or force, to have sexual contact with someone against their will. The concern of the relationship between certain aspects of pornography use is not unfounded; there is a large body of literature indicating that there is an association between certain aspects of its use and sexually coercive behaviors. A recent meta-analysis by Wright et al. (2016) provided evidence for this, using studies from before and after the advent of internet pornography, with general population and college samples of men and women, and studies that used panel or longitudinal designs. Despite strong evidence of an association between certain pornography use variables and sexual coercion, a few researchers have systematically reviewed research on pornography use and identified several shortcomings across studies assessing this behavior, namely, the fact that most of these studies focus only on frequency of use and do not assess more extreme use of pornography or compulsive use (Kohut et al., 2020; Marshall & Miller, 2019). In addition, research has found that the relationship between pornography use and sexual coercion often hinges upon personality characteristics and attitudes, such as hostile masculinity, sex drive, and sexual promiscuity (Baer et al., 2015; Heer et al., 2021). One potential factor that has been identified in previous research involves sexual scripts.

The sexual script theory developed by Gagnon and Simon (1973) posits that sexual behavior is realized and adopted through a scripting process, where individuals learn what is normal, desirable, and acceptable sexual behavior through “scripts.” Sexual scripts are cognitive schema that create an anticipated order of how sexual situations may play out. Those utilizing the sexual script theory are testing the idea that pornography may provide individuals with scripts, and due to the aggressive nature of modern, mainstream pornography (see Fritz & Paul, 2017), these scripts could support sexually coercive behavior. For instance, research looking at the aggressive content of pornography (Fritz et al., 2020) and the negotiation of consent (Willis et al., 2019), indicate that most of the mainstream pornography available on popular tube sites, such as Pornhub, contain acts of physical and verbal aggression, as well as problematic negotiations of consent, such as playful resistance and coercion. Researchers have found support for this theory in explaining the relationship between pornography use and correlates of sexual coercion, as well as likelihood of sexual coercion (Marshall et al., 2021a; Tomaszewska & Krahe, 2016, 2018). The purpose of this study is to address the limitations in previous efforts to examine the role sexual scripts play in the association between pornography use and sexual coercion. First, research on pornography use and sexual coercion, as well as the application of the sexual script theory to the potential relationship between pornography use and sexual coercion, will be discussed.

Literature Review

Pornography Use and Sexual Coercion

The body of research examining the relationship between pornography use and sexual coercion has provided evidence for several variables of pornography use that warrant attention. These include the frequency of use, the type of pornography used, investment in pornography, and age at first exposure.

Frequency

Frequency of pornography use is the most assessed aspect in this body of research, as well as research on pornography use more broadly (Kohut et al., 2020; Marshall & Miller, 2019). This finding has been produced in general population and college samples of men and women, across multiple operationalizations of sexual coercion (Wright et al., 2016). Though this finding is one of the most robust findings in this body of literature, some evidence indicates that factors other than frequency may be more strongly related to sexually coercive behavior (Kingston et al., 2008; Marshall et al., 2021b; Ybarra et al., 2011). For instance, when looking at variables of pornography use and sexual recidivism among a sample of men who had sexually offended, frequency of pornography use was only a risk factor for individuals who were already at an elevated risk of sexual recidivism. Similarly, Marshall et al. (2021b) found that the significant effects for frequency of pornography use and likelihood of sexual coercion were washed out when other variables of pornography use were included in their model. Finally, in a longitudinal analysis of adolescents, Ybarra et al. (2011) did not find that frequency of use predicted future sexually coercive behaviors.

Though there is evidence that frequency of use is not as strongly related to sexual coercion as other factors, this does not mean frequency should be neglected; the large body of research showing the association between frequency of pornography use and sexual coercion cannot be ignored. Rather, the idea is that frequency on its own is an incomplete measure of pornography use. One of the most important aspects of pornography use to consider when looking at this habit and its relationship with sexual coercion, is the type of pornography used.

Type

Though not assessed as commonly as frequency of use, some evidence suggests that the type of pornography used is one of the most important aspects of pornography use when examining its relationship with sexual coercion. More specifically, use of violent pornography, or pornography containing acts of physical aggression, has been found to be related to sexually coercive behaviors. This finding has been demonstrated among the general population and college men and women, but research has also provided evidence of time-order in samples of adolescents and men who have sexually offended. Ybarra et al. (2011) found that, among the adolescent boys and girls in their sample, those who were exposed to pornography containing violence at one time were about six times more likely to engage in self-reported acts of sexual coercion at latter time points. Exposure to non-violent pornography was non-significant. Kingston et al. (2008) demonstrated this finding in a sample of men who had sexually offended. They found that use of deviant pornography was significantly related to sexual recidivism at follow-up, regardless of the individual’s scores on a sexual recidivism risk instrument (Kingston et al., 2008). While their measure of deviant pornography included use of violent pornography and child pornography, this finding, coupled with the Ybarra et al. (2011) study, provide support for the importance of assessing the aggressive nature of pornography consumed by individuals.

Additional variables

There are additional variables that show promise in helping to understand the relationship between pornography and sexual aggression, though they have not been included as frequently in research (Kohut et al., 2020; Marshall & Miller, 2019). They include investment in use and age at first exposure.

Investment

Marshall et al. (2021b) examined the relationship between pornography use and likelihood of engaging in sexual coercion by operationalizing pornography use with an item assessing frequency and one assessing the number of modalities used to view pornography. Results of the study provided two important implications. First, number of modalities was a stronger predictor of likelihood of sexual coercion than frequency. Results of the models also indicated that adding control variables, such as rape myth acceptance and self-control, led to frequency no longer being significantly correlated with likelihood of sexual coercion. Modalities, however, remained significant with the inclusion of control variables in the model. Second, the authors conducted a threshold analysis to assess whether there were cut points in frequency or number of modalities, that significantly predicted likelihood of sexual coercion. Results of the study indicated that a cut point in modalities was significantly related to likelihood of sexual coercion, which was between one and two modalities. Further examination of the data indicated that all individuals who reported only using one modality, reported using internet pornography. Thus, the most predictive threshold was between just using internet pornography, and using internet pornography along with magazines, movies, or books. The authors state that number of modalities could have served as a proxy for investment in use (i.e., purchasing and storing physical copies of pornography, compromising affordability and anonymity). Other possible explanations include self-regulation issues and compulsive/addictive behaviors around pornography use, as prior research has found connections between compulsive pornography behaviors and engaging in sexual aggression (e.g., Brem et al., 2021). Recent work on the development of a comprehensive pornography use instrument containing a scale for investment in pornography shows promise in the prediction of sexually coercive behavior, though more work is needed to assess this instrument (Marshall, 2021).

Age at first exposure

A pair of studies conducted by Mancini et al. (2012, 2014) examined the relationship between age at first exposure and a host of variables related to sexually coercive behavior. First, Mancini et al. (2012) assessed pornography use in a sample of individuals who had sexually offended and found that exposure to pornography earlier in life was related to an increase in the violent/humiliating nature of sexual crime that the individual committed. More specifically, exposure as an adult was not related to the violent/humiliating nature of the sexual crime committed. In a similar study, Mancini et al. (2014) found that a decreased age at exposure to pornography was significantly related to individuals being younger when they committed their index sexual offense. Together, these studies provide evidence that warrants further examination of these variables.

Intervening variables

Researchers examining the relationship between pornography use and sexual coercion have identified several factors that converge with pornography use, which in turn may drive the association with sexually coercive behaviors. For instance, the Confluence Model (Malamuth, et al., 2000) posits that pornography use, hostile masculinity, and sexual promiscuity work together to influence sexually aggressive behavior. Research has found support for this theory (Huntington et al., 2022; Malamuth et al., 1995, 1996; Wright et al., 2021), specifically when examining the interaction between pornography use, impersonal sex, and sexual coercion. For instance, recently Wright et al. (2021) found that individuals who were exposed to violent pornography and impersonal in their approach to sex were more likely to engage in sexual coercion than individuals who were impersonal in their approach to sex and not exposed to violent pornography. Similarly, Huntington et al. (2022) found that impersonal sexual orientation and violent pornography exposure were related to non-contact sexual coercion, while hostile masculinity and violent pornography exposure were related to sexual coercion involving contact. These findings indicate that there are a myriad of personality and attitudinal variables that are integral to understanding the association of pornography use with sexual coercion. Additional variables that may contribute to understanding this association, are developed sexual scripts.

Sexual Scripts

In addition to the variables discussed in the previous section, the concept of sexual scripts has also drawn the interest of researchers seeking to better examine the relationship between pornography use and sexual coercion. Sexual scripts can best be understood as a mechanism through which society defines and disseminates what is acceptable, desirable, and pleasurable sexual conduct (Marshall, 2021). In other words, scripts may help individuals understand how to navigate sexual situations through the interpretation of cues, the development of sexual desires and fantasies, and understanding what behaviors are considered acceptable. Simon and Gagnon (1998) elaborated further on the concept of scripts by describing three levels of scripts, which are cultural, interpersonal, and intrapsychic. Cultural scripts are described as “the instructional guides that exist at the level of collective life” (Simon & Gagnon, 1998, p. 29). These scripts exist at the societal level and can help individuals adapt these norms into their own desires and interactions. Interpersonal scripts can best be understood as the adaptation of cultural scripts to actual sexual behavior. This may involve the perception of cues and navigating consent (Beres, 2014). Finally, intrapsychic scripts involve the sexual fantasies, desires, and imagination of the individual (Beres, 2014; Simon & Gagnon, 1998). Research conceptualizing scripts in this manner when examining pornography use and sexual coercion has found that intrapsychic and interpersonal scripts are the levels of scripts that warrant attention (Marshall et al., 2021a).

Researchers have found the concept of sexual scripts useful in explanation of the relationship pornography has with a host of sexual behaviors, such as engaging in sexual acts commonly found in pornography (Bridges et al., 2016; Sun et al., 2016), engaging in casual sex (Braithwaite, Aaron, et al., 2015; Braithwaite, Coulson, et al., 2015), and hostile attitudes toward women (Wright & Bae, 2015). While this provides evidence for the utility of sexual scripts in understanding the relationship that pornography may have with sexual behaviors, there have been less studies examining how sexual scripts play into the relationship between pornography use and sexual coercion. The research that does exist, however, provides some initial evidence of its usefulness in this line of inquiry as well.

The first study looking at pornography use, sexual scripts, and sexual coercion, was conducted by Tomaszewska and Krahe (2016). In particular, the researchers utilized a measure of pornography use, a measure of “risky” sexual scripts (scripts that contain risk elements linked to sexual aggression), and a measure of attitudes supportive of sexually coercive behaviors. The results of their study indicated that pornography use had an indirect relationship with attitudes supportive of sexual coercion through risky sexual scripts. In other words, the relationship between pornography use and attitudes supportive of sexual coercion increased as individuals endorsed more risky sexual scripts. A latter study conducted by Tomaszewska and Krahe (2018) used the same measures of pornography use and risky sexual scripts, but also had a measure of self-reported sexual coercion. The results of this study provided mixed support for the relationship between pornography use, sexual scripts, and sexual coercion. In particular, a significant indirect effect between pornography use and self-reported sexual coercion through risky sexual scripts was not found. A significant indirect effect was found, however, between pornography use and attitudes supportive of sexual coercion through risky sexual scripts, which supported findings from their earlier study (Tomaszewska & Krahe, 2016). Furthermore, there was a significant relationship between attitudes supportive of sexual coercion and self-reported sexual coercion. These findings indicate that while sexual scripts may not play a role in the relationship between pornography use and sexual coercion, it could still contribute to factors directly associated with engaging in sexually coercive behaviors.

A more recent study conducted by Marshall et al. (2021), however, provides evidence for the utility of sexual scripts in understanding the relationship between pornography use and sexual coercion. Specifically, Marshall et al. (2021) found that pornography use, as measured by frequency and number of modalities, had an indirect effect on sexual coercion likelihood through sexual scripts. This study elaborated on scripts further, by incorporating all three levels of scripts outlined by Simon and Gagnon (1998). The results indicated that pornography use had an indirect effect on sexual coercion likelihood, first through intrapsychic scripts, and then through interpersonal scripts. This not only provided evidence in support of the sexual script theory as a potential explanation for the relationship between pornography use and sexual coercion but provided evidence in support of the construct of sexual scripts outlined by Simon and Gagnon (1998) and provided a potential theoretical framework for the relationship between pornography use, sexual scripts, and sexual coercion. There were some limitations to note from this study. There were only four items assessing sexual scripts, violent pornography use, investment, and age at first exposure to pornography were not included, and the measure of sexual coercion was a measure of likelihood, not actual sexually coercive behavior.

Recent work has laid the foundation for improving upon this initial study. Marshall (2021) expanded on this conceptualization of sexual scripts through developing scales that assess intrapsychic and interpersonal scripts, as a part of a comprehensive instrument designed to measure pornography use. The sexual script items demonstrated strong predictive validity when looking at self-reported sexual coercion. Researchers have highlighted the importance of developing valid and reliable scales to assess these concepts, especially for the purpose of improving research in this area (Marshall & Miller, 2019). Though somewhat mixed, research on pornography use, sexual scripts, and sexually coercive behavior indicates that sexual scripts may play a role in the relationship between pornography use and sexual coercion.

Current Study

A review of the sizable body of literature on pornography use highlights a few points that are critical to this study. First, several variables assessing pornography use have been significantly related with measures of sexually coercive behavior, and this relationship often hinges upon personality characteristics and attitudinal variables. Second, and from a theoretical perspective, sexual scripts seem to play a key role in this relationship, not necessarily as a direct measure of the pornography use habit, but an additional variable that may mediate the relationship between variables assessing habits of pornography use and sexual coercion. The purpose of the current study is to extend this line of research, through addressing limitations and attempting to replicate a theoretical framework proposed by Marshall et al. (2021). To accomplish this, the current study will examine the mediating role of sexual scripts, measured with a comprehensive scale, in the relationship between pornography use and sexual coercion using a sample of college men. Results of the study will provide an additional test of the sexual script theory when looking at pornography use and sexual coercion, and in addition, examine whether additional evidence for the levels of sexual scripts (intrapsychic and interpersonal scripts) as outlined by Simon and Gagnon (1998) is found.

Methods

Sample

The sample for the current study consisted of 390 college males from a university located in the Southern United States. Demographic statistics for the sample can be found in Table 1. The average age for the sample was about 21 years, and most of the respondents identified as White, followed by Hispanic, African American, and those who identified as “other.” The demographic variables indicate that the sample was representative of the college campus where the study took place. Finally, a majority of the sample identified as being heterosexual, followed by homosexual/gay, and bisexual.

Table 1.

Descriptive Statistics for Sample—N = 390.

	Percent	Mean (SD)	Range
Age	—	20.99 (3.91)	18–64
Race
White	49.80	—	—
Hispanic	30.70	—	—
Black	16.60	—	—
Other	2.90	—	—
SES-SFP physical coercion	—	7.95 (6.04)	0–26
SES-SFP verbal coercion	—	5.27 (3.96)	0–16
Pornography use scales
Violent porn use	—	30.84 (8.71)	20–64
Investment	—	13.80 (3.88)	12–36
Frequency	—	24.62 (9.83)	11–44
Sexual scripts
Intrapsychic	—	11.34 (4.41)	7–24
Interpersonal	—	14.83 (4.82)	9–32
Rape myth scale	—	1.44 (0.46)	1.00–3.05
Alcohol use frequency
Never	4.30	—	—
Less than monthly	21.70	—	—
Monthly	24.20	—	—
More than once per month	14.40	—	—
Weekly	11.60	—	—
More than once per week	17.30	—	—
Daily	6.50	—	—

Measures

Dependent variable

To measure self-reported sexual coercion, the Sexual Experiences Survey-Short Form Perpetration (SES-SFP; Koss et al., 2007) was used. This measure assesses four types of sexual behaviors, which are “I fondled, kissed, or rubbed up against the private areas of someone’s body (lips, breast/chest, crotch, butt) or removed some of their clothes without their consent,” “I had oral sex with someone or had someone perform oral sex on me without their consent,” “I put my penis (men only) or I put my fingers or objects (all respondents) into a women’s vagina without her consent,” and “I put my penis (men only) or I put my fingers or objects (all respondents) into someone’s butt without their consent.” To capture coercion, five coercive tactics were included for each of the four sexual behaviors, to determine whether the individual had used coercion to engage in those behaviors. The five coercive tactics are telling lies or threatening to end the relationship, verbally attacking the individual, taking advantage of an incapacitated state (i.e., drug or alcohol use), threatening physical harm to them or someone close to them, and using physical force.

Respondents were asked to indicate how many times in the past 12 months they engaged in the behaviors and how many times they have engaged in these behaviors since the age of 14. Respondents can respond to these 40 items by selecting zero times, one time, two times, or three or more times, which is the scoring originally recommended by Koss et al. (2007). For the current study, behaviors were split into verbally coercive and physically coercive behaviors. The first two coercive tactics on the measure (lying/threatening to end relationship, verbally attacking the individual) were summed to create the verbal coercion scale, and the final three coercive tactics (taking advantage of an incapacitated state, threatening physical harm, using physical force) were summed to create a scale of physically coercive behaviors. Finally, in line with previous research (Bosson et al., 2015; Campbell et al., 2021; Voith et al., 2020), only items assessing behaviors from the previous 12 months were included in the analyses. Descriptive statistics for the measure can be found in Table 1.

Pornography use

Pornography use was assessed using three scales from the Comprehensive Assessment of Pornography Use Tool (CAPUT; Marshall, 2021). The three scales used for the current study include a scale assessing frequency of use (10 items), use of violent pornography (12 items), and investment in pornography use (7 items). The frequency scale contains items assessing the frequency of pornography use, such as “several times a month I view pornography” and “I look at porn several times a day.” The use of violent pornography scale contains items assessing the respondents use of violent pornography, such as “people are sometimes slapped in the porn that I watch” and “people in porn may receive bruises from the activities they do.” Finally, the investment scale contains items assessing the investment someone has in pornography, such as “I have purchased pornography from adult video stores” and “I have or currently have memberships on pornography websites.” The 29 Likert-type items all have following response options: (1) never true of me, (2) rarely true of me, (3) sometimes true of me, and (4) always true of me. Each of these scales demonstrated excellent internal consistency (α > .9), and initial psychometric assessment of the instrument indicate that the measure demonstrates strong test-retest reliability, as well as content and construct validity (Marshall, 2021). Descriptive statistics for the three scales can be found in Table 1.

Sexual scripts

Sexual scripts were assessed using items from the CAPUT (Marshall, 2021). These items comprised two scales that measure intrapsychic and interpersonal scripts. Items on the intrapsychic scripts scale involve individual desires and fantasies regarding sexual activity, while items on the interpersonal scripts scale assess the way individuals navigate sexual situations with others. The intrapsychic scripts scale contains nine Likert-type items, and the interpersonal scripts scale contains seven items. The intrapsychic scripts scale contains items assessing scripts that inform the desires and fantasies of the respondent, such as “pornography showed me what I want during sex” and “I fantasized about anal sex after seeing it in pornography.” The interpersonal scripts scale contains items assessing scripts that inform a respodnent’s behavior during sexual activity, such as “I do different things during sex after viewing porn” and “I believe everyone enjoys sexual acts shown in pornography.” These 17 items have the following response options: (1) never true of me, (2) rarely true of me, (3) sometimes true of me, and (4) always true of me. The intrapsychic scale (α = .86) and the interpersonal scale (α = .80) demonstrated good internal consistency. Descriptive statistics for the scale can be found in Table 1.

Control variables

The descriptive statistics for the control variables can be found in Table 1. The first control variable is a measure of rape myth acceptance, which is the Rape Myth Acceptance Scale (Lonsway & Fitzgeralds, 1995). The scale contains 19 Likert-type items assessing common rape myths, and response options include “strongly disagree” (1), “disagree” (2), “agree” (3), and “strongly agree” (4). Higher scores on the scale indicate higher endorsement of rape myths. Cronbach’s alpha indicated that the internal consistency was excellent (α = .93).

The next control variable was an item assessing the frequency of alcohol consumption. Response options include (1) “never,” (2) “less than monthly,” (3) “monthly,” (4) “more than once per month,” (5) “weekly,” (6) “more than once per week,” and (7) “daily.”

Procedure

After the University’s Internal Review Board approved the study, respondents were recruited for participation in the study through the Criminal Justice classes in which they were enrolled. A list containing all the faculty members who were teaching large auditorium classes was identified and the researchers contacted these faculty to request the ability to survey their students. Once faculty agreed to allow the researchers to survey their classes, the researchers distributed the survey link through email, along with an informed consent form and information sheet outlining the topic and purpose of the study. Participants were also informed of the sensitive nature of the information requested in the survey and provided resources to counseling services on campus for anyone who may have experienced any distress or trauma from participating. The survey protocol took about 30 minutes for respondents to complete.

Analysis Plan

First, a bivariate analysis was used to assess whether any bivariate relationships exist between the independent, dependent, and mediating variables. Next, a structural equation model was used to assess the research question for this study. The proposed model can be found in Figure 1. The model contained the measures of pornography use, sexual scripts, and self-reported sexually coercive behaviors. Specifically, the measures of pornography use were used to create a latent factor entitled “pornography use” and the sexual scripts scales were used as mediating variables between the latent “pornography use” factor and scores on the SES-SFP. This model was proposed to test previous research that found support for multiple variables of pornography use loading onto one latent factor, and the mediating effect scripts have on the relationship between pornography use and sexual coercion (Marshall et al., 2021). In addition, the direct and indirect effects of intrapsychic and interpersonal scripts found in previous research will also be tested in the proposed model (Marshall et al., 2021). All the control variables were included in the model but not included in the figure.

Figure 1.

Final path model of pornography use’s impact on sexual coercion likelihood as mediated by sexual scripts. Control variables (rape myth acceptance, alcohol use, and age) were included in the model, but not pictured in the figure.

Results

Bivariate Analysis

Results of the Pearson’s Correlation Coefficient analysis revealed a few significant bivariate associations (see Table 2). First, the only significant correlate of sexual coercion was the intrapsychic scripts scale, which was significantly correlated with both verbal and physical coercion (p < .05). Interpersonal scripts, violent pornography use, investment, and frequency were not related to either measure of sexual coercion. Results did indicate that there were significant positive correlations between each of the measures of pornography use and both sexual scripts scales (p < .01). Finally, results indicated that the control variables were not significantly related to self-reported sexual coercion. Rape myth acceptance, however, was significantly related with violent pornography use (p < .01), investment (p < .05), and frequency of pornography use (p < .05).

Table 2.

Correlation Table of Independent, Dependent, Mediating, and Control Variables.

	1	2	3	4	5	6	7	8	9
1 Verbal coercion	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—
2 Physical coercion	.84**	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—
3 Violent porn use	.02	−.01	−	−	−	—	—	—	—
4 Investment	−.06	−.08	.49**	−	−	—	—	—	—
5 Frequency	.03	−.01	.57**	.40**	−	—	—	—	—
6 Age at first exposure	−.01	−.03	−.09	−.13**	−.17**	—	—	—	—
7 Intrapsychic scripts	.11*	.10*	.29*	.31*	.37*	—.25*	—	—	—
8 Interpersonal scripts	.07	.06	.31*	.33*	.30*	−.21*	.74*	—	—
9 Alcohol use frequency	−.03	−.00	.06	.02	.04	.07	.02	.04	—
10 Rape myth acceptance	−.05	−.07	.12*	.09*	.10*	−.04	.07	.08	.08

Note. N = 390.

p < .05, **p < .01.

Multivariate Path Models

The next analysis involved testing the theoretical framework of pornography use, sexual scripts, and sexual coercion proposed by Marshall et al. (2021). This purpose was accomplished using structural equation modeling. The proposed model found in Figure 1 was run using Mplus Version 8, and the results of this model can be found in Figure 2.

Figure 2.

The results of the structural equation model indicate that the model fit the data well (comparative fit index [CFI] = 0.98; standardized root mean square residual [SMSR] = 0.03; root mean square error of approximation [RMSEA] = 0.06). Within the model, results indicated that the violent pornography use, investment, and frequency scales, as well as age at first exposure, all significantly loaded onto the latent pornography use variable (p < .01). In addition, the unstandardized factor loadings for each of the measures of pornography use were significant. As for direct relationships, pornography use had a significant direct effect on intrapsychic (p < .01) and interpersonal (p = .01) scripts. Intrapsychic scripts scale was significantly and directly related to verbal coercion (p < .05). There was no significant direct effect found between the latent pornography use variable and verbal or physical coercion. Similarly, no direct effects were found between the interpersonal scripts scale and either verbal or physical coercion.

Significant indirect effects, however, were found between pornography use, intrapsychic scripts, interpersonal scripts, and both types of sexual coercion. Pornography use had an indirect effect on interpersonal scripts through intrapsychic scripts (standard effect = 0.35; p < .01). The considerably smaller direct effect found between pornography use and interpersonal scripts, relative to the bivariate correlations, indicates that intrapsychic scripts partially mediated the relationship between pornography use and interpersonal scripts. For verbal coercion, pornography use had a significant indirect effect through intrapsychic and interpersonal scripts (standard effect = 0.08; p = .01). Additionally, for physical coercion, pornography use had a significant indirect effect through intrapsychic and interpersonal scripts (standard effect = 0.09; p < .01), with both types of sexual scripts relating to engaging in physically coercive tactics in prior sexual encounters.

Discussion

As the use of pornography, especially among young males, continues to increase, understanding the relationship between important pornography use variables and engaging in sexually coercive behaviors is vital. This is especially important since the association between certain aspects of pornography use and sexual coercion has been documented in this body of research (see Wright et al., 2016). While there is evidence of an association between pornography use variables and sexual coercion, theoretical understanding of this relationship is limited. One of the most recent investigations into a possible theoretical understanding of this relationship comes from the sexual script theory. This theory posits that pornography users may adapt cognitive schemas around sexual behavior from pornography use. These sexual schemas may influence their willingness to engage in sexually coercive behaviors. Only a few studies have investigated the ability of this theory to explain the relationship between pornography use and sexual coercion (Marshal et al., 2021b; Tomaszewska & Krahe, 2016, 2018). The current study expanded on existing examinations of this theory by addressing some of the prior methodological shortcomings.

The current study is the first to include type of pornography used, investment, age at first exposure, frequency of pornography use, and variables assessing interpersonal and intrapsychic sexual scripts. Additionally, this study includes a comprehensive assessment scale of sexual scripts adapted from pornography use that is comprised of items assessing the three different levels of sexual scripts on the newly developing CAPUT (Marshall, 2021). Recent work in CAPUT development reported a total of 48 items included on the sexual scripts scale, with sub-domains including the three levels of scripts identified by Simon and Gagnon (1998), which included cultural (15 items), interpersonal (18 items), and intrapsychic (15 items) scripts (Marshall, 2021). Examining this newly developed scripts scale, Marshall (2021) reported excellent initial reliability and validity, with significant associations with measures of hypersexual behaviors, rape myth acceptance, and sexually coercive behaviors. This new scale will allow for more comprehensive sexual script theory testing when examining what drives the relationship between pornography use and sexual coercion in some people.

The current study examined whether pornography provides a source of sexual script development that influences sexually coercive behaviors. According to the results of the bivariate analysis, sexual scripts developed from pornography use were significantly related to verbal coercion, violent pornography use, investment in pornography, and the frequency of pornography use. The largest correlation was between sexual scripts developed from pornography use and the frequency of its use. Another important relationship was found between age at first exposure to pornography and the development of sexual scripts. This finding indicates that individuals who were exposed to pornography at earlier ages, were more likely to develop sexual scripts related to sexual behaviors found in pornography. This finding supports prior research examining the impact of first age of pornography exposure on sexually coercive behaviors (Mancini et al., 2012; Marshall, 2021).

To examine the possible direct and indirect effects of sexual scripts on the relationship between pornography use and sexual coercion, a structural equation model was used. This model was proposed to test prior research that found support for a latent variable of pornography use comprised of several variables and indirect effects between pornography use and sexual coercion through sexual scripts (Marshall et al., 2021a). In the current study, it was proposed that pornography use and sexual scripts developed from its use, would both be directly related to engaging in verbal and physical sexual coercion and that there would be an indirect effect of pornography use on verbal and physical sexual coercion through sexual scripts. The results of the model provided several implications. First, the model indicated that pornography use variables of frequency, investment, violence type, and age at first exposure significantly loaded onto a latent variable of pornography use. This provides additional support for the notion that pornography use is a multifaceted construct comprised of several aspects of use (Busby et al., 2017; Marshall, 2021). Future research should continue to take this into account when examining pornography use, as it seems all of these aspects of use contribute to the understanding of this behavior and play a role in understanding how pornography use is related to certain outcomes, which in this case involve sexual coercion.

Results of the model indicated that pornography use was directly related to both intrapsychic and interpersonal scripts, with the largest effect between pornography use and intrapsychic scripts. This indicates that as the pornography use variables of frequency of use, investment in pornography, viewing violent pornography, and lower age at first exposure increased the likelihood of developing intrapsychic and interpersonal sexual scripts from pornography. This provides support for previous studies, highlighting how use of pornography increases the endorsement of scripts adopted from pornography (Marshall et al., 2021a; Tomaszewska & Krahe, 2016, 2018). Results of the model also indicated that the latent pornography use variable did not have a significant direct effect engaging in verbal or physical sexual coercion in the sample. Intrapsychic scripts, however, were directly related to engaging in verbal sexual coercion. This finding indicates that an individual’s personal desire or fantasies derived from pornography use may play a role in their engagement in sexual coercion. The association between deviant fantasies and sexual coercion is well-established in research (see Allen et al., 2020; Brouillette-Alarie & Proulx, 2019, Tharp et al., 2013), but the results of this study highlight the importance of a specific type of deviant fantasy: those that derive from pornography use. This highlights a convergence that the sexual script theory may have with the existing body of literature on sexually coercive behaviors.

Significant indirect effects were also found in the model. Pornography use had an indirect effect on interpersonal scripts through intrapsychic scripts. In addition, the considerably lower direct effect of pornography use and interpersonal scripts after including intrapsychic scripts as a potential mediator, provides some support for the notion that intrapsychic scripts partially mediate the relationship between pornography use and interpersonal scripts. This finding provides further support for the model proposed by Marshall et al. (2021a) and indicates that pornography use works through an individual’s own desires or fantasies to influence beliefs about proper sexual behavior. There were also indirect effects between pornography use, scripts, and sexually coercive behavior. Pornography use had an indirect effect on both physical and verbal coercion through intrapsychic and interpersonal scripts. In other words, the intrapsychic scripts developed from pornography use, or the individual’s development of fantasies and desires from pornography use, influence the playing out of those fantasies interpersonally (interpersonal scripts), which involves either physical or verbal sexual coercion. This finding provides further support to the model proposed by Marshall et al. (2021a), which also revealed that pornography use works through the levels of scripts outlined by Simon and Gagnon (1998) to influence sexually coercive behavior. Together, these results further support the use of sexual scripts theory in understanding the relationship between pornography use and sexual coercion for some individuals. Like prior research that has indicated that certain attitudinal, or personality predispositions increase the likelihood that an individual may be more influenced by watching pornography, the current findings indicate that some people seem to be more influenced in adapting sexual scripts from pornography use than others. In this case, it seems likely that some individuals are more sensitive or prone to developing inappropriate or harmful sexual scripts from the pornography viewed that may influence their willingness to use coercion to obtain sex.

Limitations

Though the current study remedied many prior methodological shortcomings in the examination of sexual script theory as a connector between pornography use and sexual coercion, there remain some limitations. First, it was the operationalization of sexual coercion via the SES-SFP. This instrument was designed to assess a wide range of sexually coercive behaviors, such as misleading or pressuring someone to engage in sexual behaviors. While this is the case, researchers have indicated that pornography use may be more strongly related to verbal coercion, rather than physical coercion (Wright et al., 2016), thus, the researchers believed this was an appropriate measure to use.

Second, is the sample, which contained mainly White, young, heterosexual males from a southwestern university. Findings may not generalize to other samples of males that are more diverse or from a different region of the county. Further research examining the use of the sexual script theory to explain the connection between pornography use and sexual coercion should use more diverse samples, both in race/ethnicity, sexual orientation, and in age. In addition, further examination of this theory is needed in samples of individuals who have sexually offended. Researchers have indicated that pornography use can be problematic for individuals who have sexually offended (Kingston et al., 2008; Mancini et al., 2012, 2014); thus, additional research is warranted to examine whether these findings can be replicated in this population.

Conclusion

In conclusion, the results of the current study provide additional support for the sexual script theory as a potential explanation for the relationship between certain variables of pornography use and sexual aggression. The findings support the idea that sexual scripts developed from pornography use mediate the relationship between pornography use and sexual coercion, with no direct relationships found between pornography use and sexual coercion. Another important finding was the result that pornography use is a latent construct comprised of multiple, important aspects of pornography use. This study was the first to examine sexual script theory with several important pornography use variables of frequency of use, investment, use of violent pornography, and age at first exposure, as well as use of a comprehensive assessment of sexual scripts found on the developing CAPUT. As researchers continue to develop understanding of why pornography use influences some individuals to engage in sexually coercive behavior, the use of the sexual script theory continues to be supported as a potential explanatory model.

Footnotes

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interests with respect to the authorship and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The author(s) received no financial support for the research and/or authorship of this article.

ORCID iD

Ethan A. Marshall

Author Biographies

Ethan A. Marshall, PhD is an Assistant Professor in the Department of Criminal Justice and Social Work at the University of Houston-Downtown. His research interests include scale development and sexual deviance, specifically pertaining to female sexual offenders and the relationship between pornography and sexual coercion.

Holly A. Miller is a Professor in the College of Criminal Justice at Sam Houston State University. Dr. Miller conducts research, teaches, and practices in the areas of malingered mental illness, risk and treatment need, and individuals who have sexually offended.

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