Intergenerational Transmission of Child Abuse Among Married Women in South Korea: A Multigroup Analysis of Empathetic Communication (TSL: Thanks,Sorry,and Love)

Abstract

Intergenerational transmission of child abuse (hereinafter referred to as ITCA) has been continuously reported. Supportive relations with others have also been discussed as a protective factor to prevent this cycle. However, research has mainly investigated supportive adult and peer relationships formed in childhood, with little discussion of the impact of supportive partner relationships formed after becoming an adult. This study examined whether empathetic communication (hereinafter referred to as TSL: “Thanks, Sorry, and Love”) attenuates the transmission of married women’s child abuse experiences to subsequent generations mediated by intimate partner violence (hereinafter referred to as IPV). TSL is a communication strategy that promotes positive communication between intimate partners. We expected TSL to promote positive communication between couples through a process of self-transformation. Data from 1,122 married women were obtained from a nation-wide survey conducted in South Korea. All the survey respondents lived with partners and their own children simultaneously. For this study, structural equation model multigroup analysis was conducted to determine whether the pathways would be attenuated by TSL levels, showing that a high level of TSL communication attenuated the ITCA mediated by IPV. However, this process was maintained in the low-level TSL group. TSL is thus a protective factor against the ITCA. The findings suggest that healing processes can occur not only through childhood relationships but also through those formed after adulthood. Ultimately, to help victims recover, it is necessary to expand communication programs such as TSL that help victims learn how to express their feelings through healthy relationships with their partners.

Keywords

intergenerational transmission of child abuse intimate partner violence empathetic communication structural equation modeling multigroup analysis

It seems hard to break the cycle of child abuse perpetrated by mothers who have been victims of their parents or intimate partners. Child abuse has detrimental effects on child development, can lead to post-traumatic stress disorder (Cohen et al., 2008; Widom, 1999), and increases the likelihood of antisocial behavior in adolescence (Smith & Thornberry, 1995; You & Kim, 2019). Experiencing child abuse also increases the likelihood one will become involved in violence and other criminal acts, including substance abuse and domestic violence, in the long term (Christakis, 2016; Wang et al., 2020). A further tragedy is that the harm caused by such abuse persists even after victims reach adulthood (Herrenkohl et al., 2020; Kaufman & Torbey, 2019; Leventhal & Krugman, 2012; Warmingham et al., 2020; Widom, 2017). More disconcertingly, parents who were once victims of child abuse are more likely to become perpetrators themselves (Herrenkohl et al., 1983; Leve et al., 2015; Louise et al., 2005; Pears & Capaldi, 2001; Rosenbaum & O’Leary, 1981; Thornberry et al., 2013, 2014). However, not all those abused in childhood engage in child abuse (Kaufman & Zigler, 1987; Thornberry et al., 2012). This leads to the important question of how child abuse victims can escape the cycle of child abuse perpetration mediated by Intimate Partner Violence (hereinafter referred to as IPV).

Intergenerational transmission of child abuse (hereinafter referred to as ITCA) is a preventable public health problem (Egeland et al., 1988; Kaufman & Zigler, 1987; Widom et al., 2015). Several studies have explored how supportive relationships with others can serve as a protective factor against ITCA (Kotch et al., 1997; Muller et al., 2000; Sperry & Widom, 2013; Su et al., 2020). For example, victims of ITCA can be prevented from becoming abusers themselves through supportive relationships provided by other caregivers, appropriate psychological treatment, adolescent peer support, or emotionally supportive partners (Tajima et al., 2011; Wert et al., 2019). In this field, most research has focused on the presence of supportive adults and the importance of adolescent peer relationships in the growth process, while the influence of supportive partner relationships formed in adulthood are rarely discussed. Researchers who examined the causes of child abuse and its influence on growth have been skeptical about the possibility that changes may occur upon reaching adulthood (Belsky, 1980; Cicchetti & Lynch, 1993). Meanwhile, one study has suggested that meaningful relationships after reaching adulthood may attenuate the negative effects of child abuse, though that claim is relatively incomplete and lacks empirical evidence (Widom et al., 2007).

Female victims of child abuse are more likely to be exposed to IPV when they become adults (Anderson et al., 2018; Chu, 1992; Whitfield, 2003). Over the span of a woman’s life, the violence she experiences from her parents and/or spouse can intensify her negative emotions, such as depression, anxiety, or anger. If such issues are not properly resolved, her likelihood of engaging in child abuse increases (Agnew, 1992). The likelihood that women who have experienced child abuse will abuse their children is 25% higher than in women who have not experienced such abuse (Kristin et al., 2012).

Pathways of Intergenerational Transmission of Child Abuse

Child abuse may resurface in the context of ITCA when victims become adults, have families, and become violent toward their own children. Once-abused children may later become perpetrators of domestic abuse upon reaching adulthood (Berlin et al., 2011; Kristin et al., 2012). Children may perceive their parents’ violent acts as normal behaviors at home, increase their tolerance for violence, and eventually engage in IPV themselves (Bandura & McClelland, 1977; Widom & Wilson, 2015).

Female child abuse victims are often isolated and lack support systems, making it difficult for them to recognize danger and more likely that they will acquire learned helplessness. As a result, they are at an increased risk of IPV exposure (Anderson et al., 2018; Park, 2008; Shin, 2003) and revictimization from childhood to adulthood. Abused women are 15% more likely to become victims of IPV than those who were not abused (J. Y. Kim et al., 2007). A major factor in becoming a victim of IPV is a woman’s experience with physical abuse during her childhood (Miller, 2006). When a woman who has experienced child abuse becomes violent, the offense may be directed toward her child rather than toward her spouse, as children are weaker than adults (Y. J. Kim & Kim, 2006).

When women are victims of both child abuse and IPV, their negative emotions intensify and their likelihood of engaging in child abuse increases (Jouriles et al., 2008; J. Y. Kim & Kim, 2003; J. Y. Kim et al., 2009; Taylor et al., 2009). Women who have experienced IPV were reported to have physically abused their children twice as often as their counterparts who had not experienced IPV (Coohey, 2004). They were reported to engage in significantly more instances of emotional and physical abuse, as well as other forms of corporal punishment (Taylor et al., 2009). According to J. Y. Kim et al. (2014), who examined ITCA in a nationally representative sample of women in South Korea, the women who experienced both physical child abuse and physical IPV as adults demonstrated a higher likelihood of becoming perpetrators of child abuse than any other group.

Moderating Effect of Empathetic Communication (TSL) Between Couples

In Korean society, communication between couples can be characterized as authoritative, passively resistant, past-oriented, and lacking in any sort of compliments or praise (Cho, 2009). There are noticeable differences between couples who communicate their gratitude, remorse, and love actively and frequently and those who do not (J. Y. Kim, 2014). Such differences in marital relationships may also be found in varying attitudes toward children. Couples who used empathetic communication (hereinafter referred to as TSL: “Thanks, Sorry, and Love”) regularly were compared with those who did not use it at all. The results showed that physical child abuse occurred almost 80% more in the latter group.

TSL is a strategy that ensures positive communication between married partners. TSL seeks to improve family relationships through family members’ positive expressions in order to reduce violent behavior (J. Y. Kim, 2014). TSL involves the process of expressing “Thanks,” “Sorry,” and “Love” verbally and of translating these words into actions. TSL positively transforms the content of conversations, helps those involved understand the value of family, and, as a result, strengthens family relations through the acts of self-improvement (J. Y. Kim, 2014). The process of familial communication not only solves immediate problems but also has a significant impact on the overall quality of family life (M. O. Kim, 2001). Several studies have suggested that TSL has a positive effect on family relations and helps relieve individuals’ mental health issues and stress over 10 years (H. J. Kim et al., 2016; J. Y. Kim, 2014; J. Y. Kim et al., 2012). Elderly retired men who participated in the formal TSL program showed higher marital quality (J. Y. Kim et al., 2012). North Korean female refugees who participated in the formal TSL program reported an improvement in marital relationships (H. J. Kim et al., 2016).

This study aimed to explore married women’s ITCA by testing the mediating effects of IPV victimization and the moderating effects of TSL communication with other intimate partners (see Figure 1). For the roles of TSL communication, we compared married women with high and low levels of TSL communication.

Figure 1.

Research model.

Hypotheses

In this study, we explored whether TSL communication between couples can serve to regulate the cycle through which married women who were abused during their childhood become abusers of their own children. Specifically, the following hypotheses were established.

Hypothesis 1. Female adults who have experienced child abuse are more likely to engage in child abuse in adulthood.

Hypothesis 2. Female adults who have experienced child abuse are more likely to become victims of IPV, which makes them more likely to become perpetrators of child abuse.

Hypothesis 3. A higher level of TSL communication attenuates the effects of child abuse and IPV victimization on child abuse perpetration.

Methods

Data and Sample

The data for this study were selected from the 2010 National Survey of Domestic Violence, which was conducted from August 12 to October 31, 2010. The Ministry of Gender Equality and Family in South Korea supported this nationwide survey. This survey was approved by the Institutional Review Board at Yonsei University. For the survey, samples from 3,800 representative households were collected from 200 districts across the country using data of the South Korean Population and Housing Census. The trained researchers, who were doctoral and master’s students in social work and who had completed a training on methods such as face-to-face interview skills, visited each household to interview participants using the questionnaire. Among the 3,269 households interviewed, the data of female adults who are married and/or cohabited with male partner and children under the age of 18 were used in this study.

The characteristics of total respondents (N = 1,122) are as follows. A majority of the respondents were between 30 and 49 years old (86%). Regarding education level, 45.0% of the respondents had graduated from high school and half from college (50.4%). Regarding monthly income¹ for a household in 2010, 20% respondents earned under 1,800 USD, 52% earned from 1,800 to 3,600 USD, and 26% earned over 3,600 USD. It was found that 38.5% respondents were employed and 54.4% were not employed.

Measurements

Child abuse victimization

Child abuse victimization is assessed using the 6-item Parent–Child Conflict Tactics Scales (PCCTS; Straus et al., 1998) at any time in childhood. The PCCTS consists of four dimensions of child abuse: physical abuse (e.g., slapping, hitting, kicking, or beating children), psychological abuse (e.g., speaking ill of, or ignoring children), sexual abuse (e.g., fondling), and neglect (e.g., not providing meals, or leaving children alone late at night). In this study, three types of abuse—physical, psychological, and neglect—were included and sexual abuse was excluded. Six binary variables are generated from the scale presenting each type of child abuse victimization (Cronbach’s α = .637).

IPV victimization

The past-year IPV victimization is assessed using the revised 13-item Conflict Tactics Scales (CTS2; Straus et al., 1996). The CTS2 originally had four sub-constructs, but in this study sexual violence, which trait is different from the others, is excluded. The three types of victimization considered are as follows: physical violence (e.g., slapping, choking, and hitting), psychological violence (e.g., insulting), and economic restriction (e.g., not paying living expenses). The answers were coded as 0 = never, 1 = once, 2 = twice, 3 = 3–5 times, 4 = 6–10 times, 5 = 11–20 times, and 6 = over 20 times (Cronbach’s α = .809).

Child abuse perpetration

The past-year child abuse perpetration scale comprised 14 items from the PCCTS (Straus et al., 1998), including physical violence (e.g., choking, threatening with a knife, beating), psychological violence (e.g., threatening to hit, cursing), and neglect (e.g., not taking one to hospital and leaving children alone for an extended period of time). Respondents reported whether they had abused their own children, coded as 0 = no or 1 = yes (Cronbach’s α = .809).

TSL communication

TSL communication is an indicator for empathetic communication between married couples. TSL communication focuses on three positive expressions (TSL) because couples in Korea are not accustomed to expressing positive emotions to each other. Kim developed TSL expression as a means to form and maintain harmonious relationships (J. Y. Kim et al., 2012). The TSL scale consists of three dimensions: thanks (e.g., “I said ‘thank you’ to my partner”), sorry (e.g., “I said ‘I’m really sorry’ for my wrongdoings”), forgiveness (e.g., “I said ‘I forgive you’ for your mistakes”), and love (e.g., “I said ‘I love you’ to my partner”). TSL communication level is assessed by four items from the TSL Scale (J. Y. Kim, 2014), for which respondents report how many times they said TSL over a certain period of time. The answers are coded as 0 = never, 1 = 3–4 times a year, 2 = 1 time a month, 3 = 2–3 times a month, 4 = 1 time a week, 5 = 2–3 times a week, or 6 = almost every day. The higher the score, the more TSL is used. (Cronbach’s α = .885). For the multigroup analysis in this study, groups with a mean score of less than 1 (3–4 times a year) TSL are classified into the low-TSL group and more than 4 (1 time a week) into the high-TSL group. Higher mean scores reflect higher levels of TSL communication in the married couples.

Analysis Strategy

Descriptive data analysis was conducted using the SPSS 24.0 program to identify the demographic characteristics of the study sample as well as the prevalence of child abuse victimization, IPV victimization, child abuse perpetration, and TSL communication. Path relationships and multigroup analysis were analyzed using the AMOS 23.0 program. Structural equation model (SEM) multigroup analysis was conducted to determine whether the pathways would be attenuated by TSL communication levels. SEM is useful to determine the significance of pathways between variables, hence it was applied in this study with full-information maximum likelihood (FIML; Arbuckle et al., 1996). Three goodness-of-fit indices were used to evaluate the fit of the study model: the Tucker-Lewis Index (TLI), the comparative fit index (CFI), and the root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA). In this study, it is hypothesized that missing values exist, FIML² is applied as an estimation method for the model, and bootstrapping verification is performed for the mediated effectiveness (Arbuckle et al., 1996; Hu & Bentler, 1999).

Results

Prevalence of Main Variables

Table 1 shows the prevalence for victimization of child abuse and IPV, child abuse perpetration, and TSL communication with intimate partners. Regarding the prevalence of child abuse victimization, about 60% of women had experienced child abuse and the other 40% had not. Among the abused, 46% of them reported some types of violence from male partners and 54% did not. Nearly 70% of child abuse victims had become perpetrators, the other 30% had not. Regarding the prevalence of IPV victimization, 62% of respondents reported that they had not experienced IPV and 38% had. Among those who had experienced IPV, over 70% women had abused their children and the other 30% had not. Meanwhile, for those who had not experienced IPV, half of them have not abused their children. Regarding the prevalence of child abuse perpetration, about 60% had abused their children and the others had not. The TSL mean value for couples was 2.17 (SD = 1.56), which means they expressed the empathetic communication “TSL” around once a month.

Table 1.

Statistics of Main Variables.

Main Variables	% or M (SD)		IPV (%)		Child Abuse Perpetration (%)
Main Variables	% or M (SD)		Yes	No	Yes		No
Child abuse victimization
Yes	58.8		45.9	54.1	68.4		31.6
No	41.2		30.9	69.1	45.2		54.8
IPV victimization
Yes	38.0				72.5		27.5
No	62.0				50.3		49.7
Child abuse perpetration
Yes	58.9
No	41.1
TSL communication	2.17 (1.56)
Range of TSL Scores	None	3–4 Times a Year	Once a Month	2-3 Times a Month	Once a Week	2-3 Times a Week	Every Day
I said “Thank you” to my partner	0	1	2	3	4	5	6
I told “I love you” to my partner	0	1	2	3	4	5	6
I said “I am really sorry” for my wrong doings	0	1	2	3	4	5	6
I said “I forgive you” for your mistakes	0	1	2	3	4	5	6

Note. IPV = intimate partner violence; TSL = Thanks, Sorry, and Love.

Prevalence of Child Abuse Perpetration by Child Abuse and IPV Victimization

Table 2 shows the different rates of perpetration of child abuse between the two groups of those who had experienced child abuse and those who had not. Each group is also divided into two based on whether the women experienced IPV or not. All respondents were thus divided into four groups as follows: experienced neither child abuse nor IPV; child abuse only; IPV only; both child abuse and IPV. Analysis of variance showed statistically significant differences among the four groups (F-value = 40.231, p < .001). The group perpetrating the most child abuse was those who experienced abuse both in childhood and adulthood, for whom the prevalence was 76.9%, followed by the IPV-only group with 63.2% and the child-abuse-only group with 61.5%. Finally, the group perpetrating child abuse the least was those who had not experienced any abuse in either childhood or adulthood, for whom the prevalence was 37.4%. Thus, the highest rate of perpetrating child abuse was among those abused both in childhood and adulthood, while the lowest was among those not abused in either period.

Table 2.

Prevalence of Child Abuse Perpetration by Child Abuse and IPV Victimization.

			%	Total (%)	Frequency	CAPM (SD)	F-Test
No child abuse victimization	No IPV	No CAP	62.6	100	266 (a)	.05 (.08)	40.231*** a < b, c < d
	No IPV	CAP	37.4	100	266 (a)	.05 (.08)
	IPV victimization	No CAP	36.8	100	108 (b)	.08 (.09)
	IPV victimization	CAP	63.2	100	108 (b)	.08 (.09)
Child abuse victimization	No IPV	No CAP	38.5	100	266 (c)	.10 (.11)
	No IPV	CAP	61.5	100	266 (c)	.10 (.11)
	IPV victimization	No CAP	23.1	100	299 (d)	.14 (.12)
	IPV victimization	CAP	76.9	100	299 (d)	.14 (.12)

Note. IPV = intimate partner violence; CAP = Child Abuse Perpetration.

p < .05. **p < .01. ***p < .001.

Structural Equation Modeling of Child Abuse

Our SEM has a satisfactory goodness of fit: χ² (df = 24) = 104.556, RMSEA = .055, TLI = .920, and CFI = .957. As shown in Figure 2, our model shows that child abuse victimization is significantly associated with child abuse perpetration in adulthood (β = .458, p < .001). In addition, child abuse victimization was associated with IPV victimization (β = .204, p < .001) and IPV victimization with child abuse perpetration (β = .458, p < .001). When the mediating effects were tested using bootstrapping, both indirect (95% confidence interval: [.0090, .232]) and direct effects (95% confidence interval: [.1241, .1823]) were statistically significant, indicating partial mediation by IPV victimization of the relationship between child abuse victimization and perpetration.

Figure 2.

Coefficient of pathway.

Multigroup Analysis Between Women With High and Low TSL Communication Levels

Multigroup analysis of the SEM was used to compare the path coefficients between individuals with high and low TSL communication levels. In this study, the whole TSL group was divided by quartiles, and the highest and lowest quartiles were used for multigroup analysis, while the two groups ranging 25 to 75% were excluded. The highest-level group communicates TSL once a week at least, the lowest no more than 3 to 4 times a year.

For the purpose of this study, measurement invariance was satisfied (i.e., potential variables and measurement variables were equally constrained) and a multigroup analysis of the structural equation was conducted. Both groups showed satisfactory goodness of fit: χ² (df = 24) = 60.893, RMSEA = .076, TLI = .863, CFI = .927 for the low-TSL group; χ² (df = 24) = 45.670, RMSEA = .081, TLI = .821, CFI = .905 for the high-TSL group.

This reveals that a higher level of TSL moderated the effect of child abuse victimization both on IPV victimization and on child abuse perpetration, as shown in Table 3. However, the effect of lower TSL in breaking the cycle was not statistically significant (from child abuse victimization to IPV victimization: β = .216, p < .05; from IPV victimization to child abuse perpetration: β = .316, p < .001; from child abuse victimization to child abuse perpetration: β = .469, p < .001), but higher TSL served significantly to break the brutal path (from child abuse victimization to IPV victimization: β = .198, p > .05; from IPV victimization to child abuse perpetration: β = .118, p > .05; from child abuse victimization to child abuse perpetration: β = .179, p > .05), revealing that with lower TSL, it was hard to prevent IPV victimization and child abuse perpetration, while the opposite holds for higher TSL. If TSL is used more among family members, then the victim of child abuse would be less likely to become a perpetrator.

Table 3.

Multigroup Analysis: Comparing Model Estimates Between Low-level and High-Level TSL Communication Groups.

	Low TSL Communication Group			High TSL Communication Group
	B	SE	β	B	SE	β
Child abuse victimization → IPV victimization	2.319	.921	.216^*	1.315	.773	.198
IPV victimization → Child abuse perpetration	0.118	.029	.316^***	0.090	.067	.118
Child abuse victimization → Child abuse perpetration	1.643	.423	.469^***	0.903	.537	.179

Note. IPV = intimate partner violence; TSL = Thanks, Sorry, and Love.

p < .05. **p < .01. ***p < .001.

Discussion

The purpose of this study is two-fold. First, for women who cohabit with male partners and children, it aimed to empirically examine the path of ITCA, which begins with the woman being a child abuse victim and ends as her being the perpetrator mediated by IPV. Second, it aimed to determine whether TSL moderates the path of ITCA. The results and suggestions are as follows.

First, it is found that a large number of women are exposed to high levels of domestic violence across their lifespan in South Korea. Nearly 6 in every 10 respondents reported experiencing abuse in childhood, and 4 in 10 reported experiencing IPV in adulthood respectively. Moreover, 6 in every 10 women abuse their own children. It is also found that about half of child abuse victims are associated with IPV in adulthood, while the IPV rate was lower, 30.9%, for those who had not experienced child abuse. It is assumed that the level of violence acceptance and helplessness are learned, indicating that the effects of abuse during childhood have a significant impact on victimization by IPV (McLeod, 2016). Therefore, it is essential to intervene and eradicate the problem of child abuse early on. Most of all, societal awareness that any forms of abuse are not allowed must be inculcated through education so as to spread awareness of the adverse effects of abuse and restore the positive function of the family. To this end, the Korean government must consider prioritizing policies to prevent child abuse, which would in the final analysis promote childbirth, because it is even more difficult to raise the child birth rate in negative, especially abusive, child-rearing environments. The government has invested hundreds of billions of dollars to raise the ultra-low birth rate, but such policies have failed (Ministry of Health and Welfare, 2020). Conversely, women have not received sufficient support for child-rearing. One of the fundamental ways to increase the birth rate is to prevent child abuse and to make a better society to live in, and one of the ways to prevent child abuse is to promote positive interactions between children and parents, resulting in the enhancement of their relations (Helfer & Krugman, 1997). In order to prevent child abuse in Korean society, it is necessary to rebuild the child-rearing social system from the ecological point of view to include the idea not to abuse but rather to take care of children, thereby restoring family function.

Second, this study shows that married women who have been victims of child abuse became perpetrators of child abuse mediated by IPV in adulthood. It is important to note the significance of the indirect impact of IPV, which occurs between couples in daily life and increases conflicts and life stresses (Gil, 1971; National Research Council, 1993). Regarding the mediating effect of IPV, nearly 70% of those who experienced child abuse became victims of IPV and perpetrated abuse of their own child, and half of those who had not experienced child abuse did so as well, which shows that those who had not experienced child abuse nonetheless perpetrated child abuse through the mediation of IPV. Regardless of its type or degree, any violence and aggression from male partners toward women would distort and result in a negative relationship between mother and child (Kim et al., 2009). This means that when a married woman experiences child abuse and IPV repeatedly across her lifespan, her negative emotion intensifies and leads to serious problems in her family relationships. Thus, there is an immediate need to provide social welfare interventions for women who have suffered physically and psychologically from IPV. Because women who have experienced violence may have difficulty in properly raising children, measures to support children by providing appropriate care or family support services should also be considered (J.Y. Kim, 2001). Such services for victims of violence should not only include medical interventions, but also psychological ones for mental recovery, including education on how to raise children (J.Y. Kim, 2014). In particular, this study focuses on the importance of the ITCA pathway for those who are married and/or cohabit with a male partner and children. These findings reveal the importance of couple-centered family therapy, that is the effectiveness of TSL communication within couples.

Third, it is found that there are different pathways between the high and low-level TSL communication groups. In the low-level TSL group, women who were once victims of child abuse later become perpetrators of child abuse through the mediation of IPV. Conversely, in the high-level TSL group, the ITCA pathway is not significant: Even if a woman was abused as a child, if she interacts and communicates positively with her male partner in adulthood, she has a greatly improved chance of overcoming the transmission of ITCA. The pain of the past could be overcome by resilience in the present positive partner relationship, which means that the power to heal and overcome psychological and emotional wounds caused by abuse in one’s childhood arises from the formation of meaningful new relationships. TSL enables positive communication within couples through a process of self-transformation. In the “Thank” stage, spouses thank each other for being in each other’s lives; in the “Sorry” stage, spouses apologize and show remorse for anything they might have said or done to hurt the other; lastly, in the “Love” stage, spouses express their love for each other. They then work on practicing the 5Re’s to maintain TSL (J. Y. Kim, 2014). Taking the aforementioned model into consideration, this study proposes the widespread implementation of the TSL couple therapy program. Positive communication between couples through a TSL marriage counseling program will transform negative perceptions within couples, help them empathize with each other’s pain from the past, and enable them to cope appropriately with any difficulties in the present. Tests of the formal TSL program among various subject groups (H. J. Kim et al., 2016; J. Y. Kim, 2014; J. Y. Kim et al., 2012), such as retired elderly males, middle-aged women, and adolescents, have shown reduced signs of depression, decreased stress, and improved mental health and family relationships. Therefore, it is expected that improved communication between couples will effectively halt the cycle of abuse among married women.

The limitations of this study are as follows. First, there is a limitation to the generalizability of the findings. The data used for the analysis are extracted from a national domestic violence survey conducted in 2010. Although the sample reflects general traits among the whole population, a long time has passed since the data were gathered. Nevertheless, it is considered suitable for analyzing the experiences of violence across the lifespan of women who were married and/or cohabited with a male partner and children. According to the annual survey on child abuse conducted by the Ministry of Health and Welfare, the number of reported child abuse incidents per year from 2010 to 2018 increased by 21%. Over 10 years, the occurrence of domestic violence in South Korea has not greatly changed. However, more recent domestic violence data are needed for further research. Second, caution is needed when determining causality using cross-sectional data. Thus, longitudinal research should be conducted in the near future. Third, considering the inherent bias stemming from when people were not assigned spouses at random, future research should adopt experimental study design or case-control study design. Furthermore, it is imperative to consider emotional variables such as depression, aggression, and violence tolerance when examining women in the pathway of ITCA. Lastly, this study has the limitation of diversity. It is estimated that a small number of the married women are from foreign countries (Korea National Statistics, 2022), and the number was so small that diversity in nationality and other features had not been considered at the survey time. It can be said that the survey results do reflect the circumstances of Korean society including SES. Despite the above limitations, this study is meaningful in empirically analyzing whether women who experienced child abuse and IPV became child abusers and also found how the TSL communication appears to moderate ITCA.

Footnotes

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interests with respect to the authorship and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The author(s) disclosed receipt of the following financial support for the research and/or authorship of this article: This study was supported by grants from the Yonsei University In-School Research Project (RMS2 2020-2200444)

ORCID iD

Jae Yop Kim

Notes

Author Biographies

Sunah Choi, MSW, is a researcher at the Center for Social Welfare Research at Yonsei University in South Korea. Her research interest is family communication and domestic violence. She used to work as a social worker in social welfare community center. She is currently conducting research on family functions and mental health among women in poverty.

Jae Yop Kim, PhD, is the underwood distinguished professor at the Department of Social Welfare at Yonsei University, Seoul, South Korea. He received his PhD in social service administration from the University of Chicago. He served as the principal investigator for national surveys in 1997, 1999, 2000, 2010, and 2015. He has also developed a family therapy methodology, “TSL (Thank you, Sorry, Love) family therapy.” This method has proven to be effective among elderly persons, youth, North Korean refugee women, and cancer patients. His research interests include domestic violence, family therapy, and neurobiological perspectives for social work practice.

Eunkyung Kim, MSW, is a researcher at the Center for Social Welfare Research at Yonsei University in South Korea. Her research is focused on understanding factors contributing to women’s mental health including violence victimization. The current focus of her research is self-reliance and mental health among single mothers in poverty.

Sehun Oh, PhD, is an assistant professor at the college of social work at the Ohio State University, USA. His research focuses on population and policies within children, youth, and families. His areas of expertise are social and economic inequality. He is teaching PhD students who are studying social welfare policy, advanced statistical methods, socioeconomic empowerment, and behavioral epidemiology.

References

Agnew

(1992). Foundation for a general strain theory of crime and delinquency. Criminology, 30(1), 47–88.

Anderson

R. E.

Edwards

L. J.

Silver

K. E.

Johnson

D. M.

(2018). Intergenerational transmission of child abuse: Predictors of child abuse potential among racially diverse women residing in domestic violence shelters. Child Abuse & Neglect, 85, 80–90.

Arbuckle

J. L.

Marcoulides

G. A.

Schumacker

R. E.

(1996). Full information estimation in the presence of incomplete data. Advanced structural equation modeling: Issues and techniques, 243, 277.

Bandura

McClelland

D. C.

(1977). Social learning theory (Vol. 1). Englewood cliffs.

Belsky

(1980). Child maltreatment: An ecological integration. American psychologist, 35(4), 320.

Berlin

L. J.

Appleyard

Dodge

K. A.

(2011). Intergenerational continuity in child maltreatment: Mediating mechanisms and implications for prevention. Child Maltreatment, 82(1), 162–176.

Cho

S. Y.

(2009). For functional communication between Korean couples, pastoral counseling study; focusing on Satir Theory [Master’s Thesis]. Ewha Women’s University.

Christakis

D. A.

(2016). Focusing on the smaller adverse childhood experiences: The overlooked importance of aces. JAMA pediatrics, 170(8), 725–726.

Chu

J. A.

(1992). The revictimization of adult women with histories of childhood abuse. The Journal of Psychotherapy Practice and Research, 1(3), 259.

10.

Cicchetti

Lynch

(1993). Toward an ecological/transactional model of community violence and child maltreatment: Consequences for children’s development. Psychiatry, 56(1), 96–118.

11.

Cohen

L. R.

Hien

D. A.

Batchelder

(2008). The impact of cumulative maternal trauma and diagnosis on parenting behavior. Child maltreatment, 13(1), 27–38.

12.

Coohey

(2004). Battered mothers who physically abuse their children. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 19(8), 943–952.

13.

Dixon

Brown

Hamilton-Giachritsis

(2005). Risk factors of parents abused as children: A mediational analysis of the intergenerational continuity of child maltreatment. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 46(1), 47–57.

14.

Egeland

Jacobvitz

Sroufe

L. A.

(1988). Breaking the cycle of abuse. Child Development, 59, 1080–1088.

15.

Gil

D. G.

(1971). Violence against children. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 637–648.

16.

Helfer

R. E.

Krugman

R. D.

(1997). A clinical and developmental approach to prevention. In Helfer

M. E.

Kempe

R. S.

Krugman

R. D.

(Eds.), The battered child (5th ed., pp. 594–614). The University of Chicago Press.

17.

Herrenkohl

T. I.

Fedina

Roberto

K. A.

Raquet

K. L.

R. X.

Rousson

A. N.

Mason

W. A.

(2020). Child maltreatment, youth violence, intimate partner violence, and elder mistreatment: A review and theoretical analysis of research on violence across the life course. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse, 23(1), 314–328.

18.

Herrenkohl

E. C.

Herrenkohl

R. C.

Toedter

L. J.

(1983). Perspectives on the intergenerational transmission of abuse . In Finkelhor

Gelles

R. J.

Hotaling

G. T.

Strauss

M. A.

(Eds.), The dark side of families: Current family violence research (pp. 305–316). Sage.

19.

L. T.

Bentler

P. M.

(1999). Cutoff criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis: Conventional criteria versus new alternatives. Structural equation modeling: a multidisciplinary journal, 6(1), 1–55.

20.

Jouriles

E. N.

McDonald

Slep

A. M. S.

Heyman

R. E.

Garrido

(2008). Child abuse in the context of domestic violence: Prevalence, explanations, and practice implications. Violence and Victims, 23(2), 221–235.

21.

Kaufman

Torbey

(2019). Child maltreatment and psychosis. Neurobiology of Disease, 131, 104378.

22.

Kaufman

Zigler

(1987). Do abused children become abusive parents?. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 57(2), 186–192.

23.

Kim

J. Y.

(2014). TSL family therapy and family welfare: Thanks, sorry, and love. Hakjisa.

24.

Kim

M. O.

(2001). A study on the effects of family resilience of adaptation of family of children with disabilities. Korea Child & Family Welfare Association, 8, 9–40.

25.

Kim

J. Y.

Kim

H. S.

(2003). Conjugal violence and mental health of Korean elderly women. Journal of Korea Gerontological Society, 23(2), 51–65.

26.

Kim

Y. J.

Kim

D. S.

(2006). A study on the intergenerational transmission of family violence. Journal of Korean Home Economics Association, 44(6), 141–153.

27.

Kim

H. J.

Kim

J. Y.

Kim

D. G.

(2016). “Thank You, Sorry, Love” (TSL) Therapy with North Korean refugee women: A pilot study. Research on Social Work Practice, 26(7), 816–824.

28.

Kim

J. Y.

Kim

D. G.

Nam

S. I.

(2012). TSL family therapy followed by improved marital quality and reduced oxidative stress. Research on Social Work Practice, 22(4), 389–399.

29.

Kim

J. Y.

Lee

J. H.

Chung

Y. K.

(2007). The effect of spouse violence perpetrator’s child abuse experience during childhood on abusing one’s own children: Focusing on spouse role satisfaction. Korean Journal of Social Welfare Studies, 35, 291–312.

30.

Kim

J. Y.

Lee

J. H.

Song

H. J.

(2009). A study on the child abuse among intimate partner violence victim mother. Korean Journal of Social Welfare Studies, 40(4), 323–348.

31.

Kim

J. Y.

Ryu

W. J.

S. H.

Lee

(2014). A study on the intergenerational cycle of domestic violence: Based on the effects of the revictimization of women throughout their lives. Korean Journal of Family Welfare, 19(1), 81–101.

32.

Korea National Statistics. (2022). Female Married Immigrants at National Statistics, Retrieved from https://kosis.kr/search/search.do?query

33.

Kotch

J. B.

Browne

D. C.

Ringwalt

C. L.

Dufort

Ruina

Stewart

P. W.

Jung

J. W.

(1997). Stress, social support, and substantiated maltreatment in the second and third years of life. Child Abuse & Neglect, 21(11), 1025–1037.

34.

Kristin

Valentino

Amy K.

Nuttall

Michelle

Comas

John G.

Borkowski

Carol E.

Akai

. (2012). Intergenerational continuity of child abuse among adolescent mothers: authoritarian parenting, community violence, and race. Child Maltreatment, 17(2), 172–181.

35.

Leve

L. D.

Khurana

Reich

E. B.

(2015). Intergenerational transmission of maltreatment: A multilevel examination. Development and Psychopathology, 27(402), 1429.

36.

Leventhal

J. M.

Krugman

R. D.

(2012). “The battered-child syndrome” 50 years later: Much accomplished, much left to do. JAMA, 308(1), 35–36.

37.

Louise

Dixon

Kevin

Brown

, & Catherine Hamilton-Giachritsis. (2005). Risk factors of parents abused as children: a mediational analysis of the intergenerational continuity of child maltreatment. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 46(1), 47–57.

38.

McLeod

(2016). Bandura - social learning theory. Retrieved from www.simplypsychology.org/bandura.html

39.

Miller

D. K.

(2006). The effects of childhood physical abuse or childhood sexual abuse in battered women’s coping mechanisms: Obsessive-compulsive tendencies and severe depression. Journal of Family Violence, 21(3), 185–195.

40.

Ministry of Health and Welafer. (2020). The 3rd Plan for Aging Society and Population, Retrieved from https://www.mohw.go.kr/react

41.

Muller

R. T.

Lemieux

K. E.

(2000). Social support, attachment, and psychopathology in high risk formerly maltreated adults. Child Abuse & Neglect, 24(7), 883–900.

42.

National Research Council. (1993). Understanding child abuse and neglect. National Academies Press.

43.

Park

A. K.

(2008). A study on the application of cognitive behavior model to self-esteem and depression of female victims from family violence [Unpublished doctoral dissertation]. Hanyoung Theological University.

44.

Pears

K. C.

Capaldi

D. M.

(2001). Intergenerational transmission of abuse: A two-generational prospective study of an at-risk sample. Child Abuse & Neglect, 25(11), 1439–1461.

45.

Rosenbaum

O’Leary

K. D.

(1981). Children: The unintended victims of marital violence. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 51(4), 692.

46.

Shin

G. M.

(2003). Learned helplessness. Bae Young Sa.

47.

Smith

Thornberry

T. P.

(1995). The relationship between childhood maltreatment and adolescent involvement in delinquency. Criminology, 33(4), 451–481.

48.

Straus

M. A.

Hamby

S. L.

Boney-McCoy

Sugarman

D. B.

(1996). The revised conflict tactics scales (CTS2) development and preliminary psychometric data. Journal of Family Issues, 17(3), 283–316.

49.

Straus

M. A.

Hamby

S. L.

Finkelhor

Moore

D. W.

Runyan

D. W.

(1998). Identification of child abuse with the PCCTS: Development and psychometric data for a national sample of American parents. Child Abuse & Neglect, 22(4), 249–270.

50.

Sperry

D. M.

Widom

C. S.

(2013). Child abuse and neglect, social support, and psychopathology in adulthood: A prospective investigation. Child Abuse & Neglect, 37(6), 415–425.

51.

D’Arcy

Meng

(2020). Social support and positive coping skills act as mediators buffering the impact of childhood maltreatment on psychological distress and positive mental health in adulthood: Analysis of a national population-based sample. American Journal of Epidemiology, 189(5), 394–402.

52.

Tajima

E. A.

Herrenkohl

T. I.

Moylan

C. A.

Derr

A. S.

(2011). Moderating the effects of childhood exposure to intimate partner violence: The roles of parenting characteristics and adolescent peer support. Journal of research on adolescence, 21(2), 376–394.

53.

Taylor

C. A.

Guterman

N. B.

Lee

S. J.

Rathouz

P. J.

(2009). Intimate partner violence, maternal stress, nativity, and risk for maternal maltreatment of young children. American Journal of Public Health, 99(1), 175–183.

54.

Thornberry

T. P.

Knight

K. E.

Lovegrove

P. J.

(2012). Does maltreatment beget maltreatment? A systematic review of the intergenerational literature. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse, 13(3), 135–152.

55.

Thornberry

T. P.

Henry

K. L.

Smith

C. A.

Ireland

T. O.

Greenman

S. J.

Lee

R. D.

(2013). Breaking the cycle of maltreatment: The role of safe, stable, and nurturing relationships. Journal of Adolescent Health, 53, S25–S31.

56.

Thornberry

T. P.

Matsuda

Greenman

S. J.

Augustyn

M. B.

Henry

K. L.

Smith

C. A.

, et al. (2014). Adolescent risk factors for child maltreatment. Child Abuse & Neglect, 38, 706–722.

57.

Wang

D. S.

Chung

C. H.

Chang

H. A.

Kao

Y. C.

Chu

D. M.

Wang

C. C.

. . . Chien

W. C.

(2020). Association between child abuse exposure and the risk of psychiatric disorders: a nationwide cohort study in Taiwan. Child Abuse & Neglect, 101, 104362.

58.

Warmingham

J. M.

Rogosch

F. A.

Cicchetti

(2020). Intergenerational maltreatment and child emotion dysregulation. Child Abuse & Neglect, 102, 104377.

59.

Wert

V. M.

Anreiter

Fallon

B. A.

Sokolowski

M. B.

(2019). Intergenerational transmission of child abuse and neglect: A transdisciplinary analysis. Gender and the Genome, 3, 2470289719826101.

60.

Whitfield

C. L.

Anda

R. F.

Dube

S. R.

Felitti

V. J.

(2003). Violent childhood experiences and the risk of intimate partner violence in adults: Assessment in a large health maintenance organization. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 18(2), 166–185.

61.

Widom

C. S.

(1999). Posttraumatic stress disorder in abused and neglected children grown up. American Journal of Psychiatry, 156(8), 1223–1229.

62.

Wang

D. S.

Chung

C. H.

Chang

H. A.

Kao

Y. C.

Chu

D. M.

Wang

C. C.

Chien

W. C.

(2020). Association between child abuse exposure and the risk of psychiatric disorders: a nationwide cohort study in Taiwan. Child Abuse & Neglect, 101, 104362.

63.

Widom

C. S.

(2017). Long-term impact of childhood abuse and neglect on crime and violence. Clinical psychology: Science and Practice, 24(2), 186–202.

64.

Widom

C. S.

Czaja

S. J.

DuMont

K. A.

(2015). Intergenerational transmission of child abuse and neglect: Real or detection bias?. Science, 347(6229), 1480–1485.

65.

Widom

C. S.

DuMont

Czaja

S. J.

(2007). A prospective investigation of major depressive disorder and comorbidity in abused and neglected children grown up. Archives of General Psychiatry, 64(1), 49–56.

66.

Widom

C. S.

Wilson

H. W.

(2015). Intergenerational transmission of violence (pp. 27–45). Springer Netherlands

67.

You

Y. J.

Kim

N. R.

(2019). The Relationship between abuse experiences in childhood and violent behavior in juvenile. Korean Criminal Psychology Review, 15, 69–86.