Alcohol Use and Physical Intimate Partner Violence Perpetration Among Black Men: The Moderating Effect of Interpersonal Social Support

Abstract

Studies have consistently shown an association between alcohol use in adulthood and intimate partner violence (IPV) perpetration. Yet, no known studies have examined this relationship when considering social support as a potential moderator with a sample of Black men. To address this gap in knowledge, we examined the moderating role of interpersonal social support on alcohol use in adulthood and physical IPV perpetration among Black men. Data for 1,127 Black men were obtained from the National Epidemiologic Survey of Alcohol and Related Condition (NESARC, Wave 2). Descriptive and logistic regression models were run with weighted data using STATA 16.0. Results from logistic regression analyses revealed that alcohol use in adulthood significantly predicted IPV perpetration (odds ratio [OR] = 1.18, p < .001). Interpersonal social support significantly moderated (OR = 1.01, p = .002) the relationship between alcohol use and IPV perpetration among Black men. Additionally, age, income, and perceived stress were significantly associated with IPV perpetration among Black men. Our study findings highlight the role of alcohol use and social support in exacerbating IPV perpetration among Black men, and the need for culturally responsive interventions to address these public health concerns throughout the life course.

Keywords

Black men alcohol use social support intimate partner violence perpetration

Intimate partner violence (IPV) is a severe public health crisis that affects individuals within the United States and globally (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention [CDC], 2020). IPV refers to acts of physical, sexual, and emotional/psychological abuse, stalking, and controlling behaviors by a current or former intimate partner (CDC, 2020; Garcia-Moreno et al., n.d.). Although studies, dating back from almost four decades (Straus & Gelles, 1986; Straus et al., 1980) to now (Cunradi et al., 2013; Schafer et al., 2004), have found that Black men perpetrate IPV at higher rates when compared to their White counterparts and other racial or ethnic groups, these findings are not universal. Notably, several factors have been found to act as stressors (Caetano et al., 2005) and thereby increases the risk for IPV perpetration by Black men including but not limited to poverty; low income; high rates of unemployment, lower educational attainment (Capaldi et al., 2012; Valandra et al., 2019); heightened experiences of racial discrimination (Reed et al., 2010), historical trauma (Valandra et al., 2019); marginalization and lack of advancement (Hampton et al., 2003); mental health challenges (Maldonado et al., 2022); and disproportionately high rates of incarceration (Oliver & Hairston, 2008).

Within the United States, it is estimated that 19% of men, who had been primarily in relationships with women only, perpetrate IPV (Walsh et al., 2020). Furthermore, 35.6% of women and 28.5% of men have been victims of IPV (i.e., rape, physical violence, or stalking) in their lifetime, of which 24.3% and 13.8%, respectively, were victims of physical abuse only (Breiding et al., 2014). Black populations had higher rates of IPV victimization when compared to other racial groups, with their perpetrators often of the same race. These high rates of perpetration and victimization are associated with an enormous lifetime economic cost of $3.6 trillion dollars, of which an average of $2.1 trillion dollars was directly associated with medical costs in 2014 (CDC, 2020; Peterson et al., 2018).

Studies have consistently found an association between IPV perpetration and negative short- and long-term mental and behavioral health consequences such as depression, posttraumatic stress disorder (Yu et al., 2019), adverse childhood experiences (Alleyne-Green et al., 2018; Watt & Scrandis, 2013), and substance abuse (e.g., alcohol use; Radcliffe et al., 2017; Shern et al., 2016). However, factors such as high friendship quality and social support have been shown to protect against IPV perpetration (CDC, 2020).

Alcohol Use and IPV Perpetration

Findings regarding the role of alcohol use in IPV perpetration are mixed (Averett & Wang, 2016; Feingold et al., 2015; Lee et al., 2020). For example, a 12-year prospective study by Feingold et al. (2015) did not indicate a significant relationship between heavy episodic drinking or drug use and IPV perpetration. A systematic review by Lee et al. (2020) also found mixed results regarding the role of alcohol use in IPV perpetration among Black men, although most studies reviewed indicated that problematic alcohol use, alcohol abuse or dependence, and alcohol and drug use were associated with increased risk for IPV perpetration.

Other studies, however, have found a significant relationship between alcohol use and IPV perpetration. Hove et al. (2010) found a significant relationship between IPV perpetration and alcohol use among heterosexual male college students who perpetrate IPV when compared to non-perpetrators. Similarly, using a national sample of men, Lipsky and Caetano (2011) also found significant differences in alcohol use between perpetrators and non-perpetrators of IPV, such that men who consumed more alcohol had greater risk for IPV perpetration. Two meta-analyses (Crane et al., 2016; Foran et al., 2008) and one systematic review (Langenderfer, 2013) also highlight the finding that alcohol use increases risk for IPV perpetration. Langenderfer’s (2013) systematic review clearly indicated a significant relationship between IPV perpetration and reported alcohol use, such that 9% to 59.7% of men who perpetrated IPV reported binge-drinking and 17.8% to 50% reporting heavy or excessive alcohol use.

Interpersonal Social Support and IPV Perpetration

Social support refers to the social network of an individual and the degree to which members of that network perform certain functions (Cohen, 2004; Sherbourne & Stewart, 1991). Social support includes various dimensions such as tangible, appraisal, and belonging support (Cohen et al., 1985; Sherbourne & Stewart, 1991), and has been found to be effective in promoting mental and physical health among adolescents and adult samples (Thoits, 1995). For example, researchers have found that Black individuals with more frequent emotional support and frequent contact with family members had lower odds of major depressive disorder (Lincoln & Chase, 2012; Taylor et al., 2015). Studies using Black samples have also found a significant and negative association between social support and posttraumatic stress disorder and social anxiety (Levine et al., 2015; Nguyen et al., 2016), and suicide and suicidal ideation (Nguyen et al., 2017). Yet, a paucity of studies have examined the role of social support in potentially buffering the effects of IPV perpetration, in general, and specifically among Black men.

Studies that examine the association between social support and IPV have mostly been conducted with IPV victims (Capaldi et al., 2012; Wright, 2012), with social support viewed as a protective factor against victimization. That is, IPV victimization was more prevalent for women in cases where they had less social support (Huang et al., 2010; Van Wyk et al., 2003). On the other hand, findings regarding the relationship between social support and IPV perpetration are not consistent, with some studies indicating that the presence of social support does not buffer against IPV perpetration or has a weak effect (Roberts et al., 2010), and others indicating that it does serve a protective function (Herrera et al., 2008; Smith Slep et al., 2010).

The Present Study

Although research has consistently shown a link between alcohol use and physical IPV perpetration, limited studies have examined the moderating role of interpersonal social support in this relationship, especially among Black men. Using this sample allowed the researchers to explore this phenomenon with a group that is often underrepresented and excluded from research studies. Furthermore, the limited inclusion of Black men in research studies poses a barrier to the exploration and reduction of alcohol use and IPV through the development of culturally specific evidence-based interventions. This study sought to answer the following research question: Does interpersonal social support moderate the relationship between alcohol use and physical IPV perpetration among Black men? We hypothesize that interpersonal social support will moderate (i.e., buffer) the relationship between alcohol use in adulthood and physical IPV perpetration.

Methods

Data Source and Sample Population

Secondary data used in this study were obtained from Wave 2 of the National Epidemiological Survey of Alcohol and Related Conditions (NESARC II; 2004-2005). The NESARC is a longitudinal study that includes a nationally representative sample of non-institutionalized civilians, aged 18 years or older, residing in all 50 U.S. states and the District of Columbia. Data were collected using face-to-face surveys with individuals residing in household or group quarters within the United States. Non-Hispanic Blacks and Hispanics were oversampled in Waves 1 and 2 of the NESARC to increase racial/ethnic minority representation. A total of 36,654 individuals from the Wave 1 interview (n = 43,093) were reinterviewed at Wave 2 when they were 20 years or older (86.7% response rate). All data across both waves were weighted at the individual and household levels to account for selection, non-response, and oversampling and then adjusted to be reflective of the U.S. population, using population estimates from the 2000 Decennial Census. The present study included a sample (N = 1,127) of non-Hispanic Black men, aged 20 years or older at the Wave 2 interview, who reported being in an intimate relationship in the year prior to the NESARC Wave 2 interview, were heterosexual, and were current drinkers since the Wave 1 interview. The present study received the Institutional Review Board approval from the University of Maryland, Baltimore.

Measures

Intimate partner violence

Five questions adapted from studies by Cunradi et al., (1999) and White and Chen (2002) were used to measure physical IPV perpetration within the past year (PY, i.e., 12 months) preceding the interview. These questions included incidences and frequencies of (1) pushing, grabbing, or shoving; (2) slapping, kicking, biting, or hitting; (3) threatening with a weapon like a knife or gun; (4) cutting or bruising; and (5) injuring a spouse/partner enough that they had to get medical care. Questions had four response options: 0 = never; 1 = once; 2 = 2 to 3 times; 3 = once per month; and 4 = more than once per month. Because the IPV variable was not normally distributed, it was treated as a dichotomous variable (0 = no and 1 = yes).

Alcohol use

Questions from the Alcohol Use Disorder and Associated Disability Interview Schedule–DSM-IV version (AUDAIS-IV) were used to assess each participant’s daily alcohol consumption within the past 12 months prior to the interview. Studies have shown the AUDAIS-IV to be a reliable and valid measure (Grant et al., 2003; Ruan et al., 2008). By summing beverage-specific volumes across four beverage types (i.e., coolers, beer, wine, and liquor), the alcohol use variable had responses ranging 0.0002 to 37.4102 ounces, which were recoded into number of standard drinks consumed (i.e., 0.6 oz = 1 standard drink of pure alcohol; NESARC 2 Data Notes, 2008; National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism [NIAAA], n.d.) with values ranging 0 to 22 standard drinks. The alcohol used variable was log-transformed because it was not normally distributed.

Interpersonal social support

Twelve questions from the general population version of the Interpersonal Support Social Network Evaluation list (ISEL-12; Cohen & Hoberman, 1983; Cohen et al., 1985) were used to assess participants’ perceptions of the availability of social resources. The items on the ISEL-12 are counterbalanced to account for socially desirable responses, with half the items being positive statements and the other half consisting of negative statements (Cohen et al., 1985). The ISEL-12 has three subscales which each consist of four questions: (1) appraisal (e.g., “I feel there is no one I can share my most private worries and fears with; there is someone I can turn to for advice about handling problems with my family”); (2) belonging (e.g., “I don’t get invited to do things with others; If I wanted to have lunch with someone, I could easily find someone to join me”); and (3) tangible support (e.g., “If I were sick, I know I would find someone to help me with my daily chores; If I needed some help in moving to a new house or apartment, I would have a hard time finding someone to help me”). Response options ranged from 1 (definitely false) to 4 (definitely true). The ISEL-12 can be scored as three distinct subscales (with a score from 1 to 16) or as a total score (ranging 1–48). To capture the participants’ overall social support, the composite score was used and treated as a continuous variable. Using a sample of Hispanic/Latino participants, the ISEL-12 has shown adequate reliability (α = .70; Merz et al., 2014). Within the current study, this measure had good reliability (Cronbach’s α = .80 and an inter-item covariance of 0.14).

Control variables

Control variables were selected based on prior literature. Age, education, household income, marital status, perceived stress (PSS4; Cohen & Hoberman, 1983; Cohen & Williamson, 1988), and norm-based mental health component summary (NBMCS) score (Ware et al., 2002) were included as control variables.

Education (1 ≤ high school (ref); 2 = high school (i.e., completed high school or graduate equivalency degree); and 3 ≥ high school); income (1 ≤ $25,00 (ref); 2 = $25,000–$39,999; 3 = $40,000–$69,999; 4 = $70,000–$99,999; and 5 ≥ $100,000); and marital status (1 = married/living with someone as if married, 2 = widowed/divorced/separated, and 3 = never married (ref)) were treated as categorical variables. Age, perceived stress, and NBMCS were treated as continuous variables in analyses. Because studies have shown the association between mental health, alcohol use, and IPV perpetration, NBMCS was included as a global measure of mental health functioning.

Data Analysis

We used the survey prefix command, SVY, in Stata version 16 (StataCorp, 2019) to conduct univariate and multivariate analyses. Survey weights were used to account for non-response, attrition, and to obtain population estimates and survey design variables to adjust standard errors using Taylor series linearization. We performed logistic regression analyses to examine the effects of alcohol use and interpersonal social support on IPV perpetration, and the moderating effects of interpersonal social support on alcohol use and IPV perpetration, controlling for age, income, education, marital status, NBMCS, and perceived stress.

Results

Participants

Participants had a mean age of 42.05 years (SD = 16.27). More than one-half (61.2%; n = 665) of the participants were married or living with someone as if married and 52.7% (n = 603) were educated beyond high school (see Table 1). Close to one-quarter (24.6%; n = 271) of the sample had an annual household income of less than $25,000. Furthermore, only 7.1% (n = 81) of the sample reported IPV perpetration in the previous year. On average, respondents consumed 0.62 (SD = 2.01) standard drinks of alcohol per day within the past year.

Table 1.

Participants’ Descriptive Data (N = 1,127).

Characteristics	n (%)
Marital status
Married/living with as married	665 (61.2)
Widowed/divorced/separated	184 (12.6)
Never married	278 (26.2)
Education
Less than high school	31 (2.3)
High school	493 (45.0)
Greater than high school	603 (52.7)
Household Income
<$25,000	271 (24.6)
$25,000–$39,999	212 (17.9)
$40,000–$69,999	327 (29.5)
$70,000–$99,999	185 (15.6)
≥$100,000	132 (12.4)
Perpetrated IPV
No	1,046 (92.8)
Yes	81 (7.1)
	M (SD), [Median, Range]
Age	42.05 (16.27), [41, 70]
Alcohol Use	0.62 (2.01), [0, 22]
Perceived Stress	3.73 (3.33), [3, 16]
Interpersonal Social Support	42.95 (5.96), [44, 30]
NBMCS	52.23 (10.97), [54.7, 61.9]

Note. Weighted data were used for all frequencies and percentages. IPV = intimate partner violence; NBMCS = norm-based mental health component summary.

Main effects model without interaction

Men who consumed alcohol were found to have 18% (odds ratio [OR] = 1.18; p < .001) higher odds of perpetrating IPV, respectively, than those who did not (see Table 2). On the contrary, interpersonal social support (OR = 0.97; p = .10) was not found to be a significant predictor of physical IPV perpetration among participants in the sample.

Table 2.

Logistic Regression Analysis for the Independent Effects of Interpersonal Social Support, Alcohol Use, and Covariates on IPV Perpetration (N = 1,122).

Predictor	OR	SE	95% CI
Age	0.96*	0.005	[0.95, 0.97]
Income^a
$25,000–$39,999	1.72**	0.30	[1.20, 2.46]
$40,000–$69,999	0.74	0.11	[0.54, 1.01]
$70,000–$99,999	0.54**	0.10	[0.37, 0.81]
≥$100,000	0.97	0.14	[0.72, 1.30]
Education^b
High school	2.23	2.33	[0.26, 18.56]
Greater than high school	1.91	1.98	[0.23, 15.61]
Marital Status^c
Married/living with someone as if married	1.54	0.35	[0.96, 2.46]
Widowed/divorced/separated	1.36	0.37	[0.78, 2.35]
NBMCS	0.99	0.006	[0.98, 1.01]
Perceived stress	1.16*	0.03	[1.10, 1.23]
Alcohol use^d	1.18*	0.03	[1.11, 1.26]
Interpersonal Social Support	0.97	0.01	[0.94, 1.00]

Note. Weighted data were used in these analyses. 153 strata were removed from this analysis because they contained no data for Black men. OR = odds ratio; SE = standard error; CI = confidence interval; IPV = intimate partner violence; NBMCS = norm-based mental health component summary.

Reference < $25,000

Reference = less than high school education

Reference = never married

Alcohol Use = average # of standard drink (0.6 fl. oz of pure alcohol) consumed daily.

p < .001. **p < .05.

Moderating effect of interpersonal social support on IPV perpetration

As shown in Figure 1 and Table 3, interpersonal social support exacerbated the relationship between alcohol use and IPV perpetration among participants (OR = 1.01, p = .003). That is, men with higher social support who drank more alcohol were more likely to perpetrate IPV in comparison to men without such levels of support who drank.

Figure 1.

Moderating effects of interpersonal social support on alcohol use and physical intimate partner violence perpetration.

Table 3.

Logistic Regression Analysis for the Moderating Effects of Interpersonal Social Support on Alcohol Use and IPV Perpetration (N = 1,122).

Predictor	OR	SE	95% CI
Age	0.96*	0.006	[0.95, 0.97]
Income^a
$25,000–$39,999	1.78**	0.32	[1.23, 2.56]
$40,000–$69,999	0.79	0.13	[0.57, 1.11]
$70,000–$99,999	0.56**	0.11	[0.37, 0.84]
≥$100,000	1.01	0.15	[0.75, 1.37]
Education^b
High school	1.99	2.08	[0.24, 16.38]
Greater than high school	1.71	1.76	[0.21, 13.71]
Marital status^c
Married/living with someone as if married	1.55	0.35	[0.97, 2.47]
Widowed/divorced/separated	1.34	0.37	[0.76, 2.34]
NBMCS	0.99	0.006	[0.98, 1.01]
Perceived stress	1.17*	0.03	[1.10, 1.23]
Alcohol use^d	0.64**	0.11	[0.45, 0.93]
ISEL	0.99	0.01	[0.96, 1.01]
Alcohol use X Interpersonal Social Support	1.01**	0.004	[1.00, 1.02]

Note. Weighted data were used in these analyses; 153 strata were removed from this analysis because they contained no data for Black men. OR = odds ratio; SE = standard error; CI = confidence interval; NBMCS = norm-based mental health component summary; ISEL = Interpersonal Support Social Network Evaluation list; IPV = intimate partner violence.

Reference <$25,000.

Reference = less than high school education.

Reference = never married.

Alcohol Use = average # of standard drink (0.6 fl. oz of pure alcohol) consumed daily.

p < .001; **p < .05.

Significant covariates

Across the two models (i.e., with and without the moderating effect of social support) age, income, and perceived stress were found to be significant predictors of physical IPV perpetration among the sample. Specifically, increases in age significantly reduce the odds of IPV perpetration by 4%, respectively. Men in the lowest income bracket (i.e., $25,000–$39,999) were significantly more likely to perpetrate IPV (between 72% and 78%) when compared to those in higher income bracket of $70,000–$99,999 who had 44% to 46% lower odds of perpetrating IPV. Additionally, each increase in perceived stress was found to be associated with a 16% to 17% increase in the odds of IPV perpetration.

Discussion

In this study we examined if perceived interpersonal social support moderates the relationship between alcohol use and physical IPV perpetration among Black men. Results indicated that participants who had higher levels of interpersonal social support and consumed alcohol had increased risk of perpetrating physical IPV. That is, contrary to the study hypothesis, we found that increased levels of perceived social support exacerbated the relationship between alcohol use and physical IPV perpetration. This finding is inconsistent with the extant literature, where increased social support was found to be associated with lower odds of perpetrating IPV (Greenman & Matsuda, 2016; Smith Slep et al., 2010). The discrepancy between the current findings and existing literature may be due, in part, to variation in the conceptualization and operational definition of social support and the types of social support measures used. For example, Smith Slep et al.’s (2010) study used a community assessment measure that included support from leadership, formal agencies, neighbors, and overall social support. Also, Greenman and Matsuda (2016) measured social support by examining peer support and parenting social support. The difference in finding between this and existing studies could also be due to the fact that this sample consisted only of Black men.

Many Black individuals, especially Black men, obtain both psychological and social support through familial relationships (Hill, 1999) and the “Black Church” (Mattis et al., 2003) and receive affirmation of their cultural backgrounds and identity through a collectivist worldview and social orientation (Coon & Kemmelmeier, 2001; Utsey et al., 2007). Although research has found that Black men who receive higher levels of social support have better mental and behavioral outcomes (e.g., better health status; coping behaviors, quality of life, well-being; Cooper et al., 2013), there is also a stigma associated with the use of both formal and informal social support among this population, resulting in an underutilization of these resources. That is, some Black individuals who experience distress may practice self-concealment where they withhold their emotions (e.g., anger, fear, vulnerability) due to fear of being stigmatized (Lindsey & Marcell, 2012; Masuda et al., 2012). Therefore, our finding that higher levels of perceived interpersonal social support significantly exacerbate the relationship between alcohol use and physical IPV perpetration may be because this sample of men may opt to not utilize both formal and informal social supports, despite having access to them, out of fear of being stigmatized.

This finding could also be due, in part, to the fact that it is not the presence of a support system that is effective in reducing IPV perpetration, but rather what those supportive relationships provide (Cullen, 1994; Nurullah, 2012). Given the exacerbating effect of perceived social support on alcohol use and subsequent physical IPV perpetration, it is also possible that Black men who consume alcohol may receive social support from other alcohol users, resulting in an increased risk for violence perpetration. For example, studies have found that the social network of men who were heavy drinkers, when compared to men who were regular or infrequent drinkers, were more likely to be friends rather than family or others, male and unmarried; and that 75% of peer drinking networks for both men and women heavy drinkers consisted of “drinking buddies” (Leonard et al., 2000). Additionally, men with lower marital satisfaction were also found to have more “drinking buddies” over time in their social network (Homish & Leonard, 2008).

Black men who perpetrate IPV may also receive social support from other men who perpetrate of IPV. Though limited, research has shown an association between affiliation with “delinquent” social support networks and increased risk for IPV perpetration (DeKeseredy & Schwartz, 1993; Silverman & Williamson, 1997). These associations often result in the creation of an ideology that legitimizes the use of violence in intimate relationships (DeKeseredy, 1988; Dekeseredy & Schwartz, 1993), such that when an intimate partner deviates from the ideal of her male partner’s social support network, regarding respect and honor of male dominance, the peer group may provide informal support that encourages, promotes, and approves the use of violence as a form of corrective measure (Silverman & Williamson, 1997).

Our findings also shed light on the impact of multiple factors that contribute to Black men’s use of alcohol and violence perpetration in intimate relationships. Specifically, our findings elucidated the impact of complex reciprocal interactions between individuals and their environment that fosters the use of alcohol and subsequent increased risk for violence perpetration.

Strengths and Limitations

To our knowledge this is the first known study to examine the moderating role of interpersonal social support on alcohol use and IPV perpetration among a sample of Black men. Despite this strength, findings should be interpreted in light of a few limitations. First, data used in this study to examine alcohol use, IPV perpetration, and interpersonal social support were self-reported, retrospective, and uncorroborated. Although self-reported data allows for recall bias and the provision of socially desirable responses, studies have shown adequate stability and reliability in the reporting of interpersonal social support, alcohol use, and IPV perpetration (Ruan et al., 2008). Furthermore, data used in this study were cross-sectional in nature and as such causality cannot be determined.

Second, the interpersonal social support measure did not have much variability. Notably, there was a ceiling effect with participants in this sample having higher scores on average, which may have affected this study’s findings. That is, men reported high levels of social support, which is consistent with the extant literature demonstrating that Black individuals operate from a collectivist worldview and social orientation (Coon & Kemmelmeier, 2001; Utsey et al., 2007), receiving large amounts of social and psychological support through sources such as familial relationships (Hill, 1999) and the Black Church (Mattis et al., 2003). Furthermore, it was unclear precisely who this sample of men were referencing (friends, family, religious congregations, etc.) when responding to the interpersonal social support measure, which may have also impacted study findings.

Finally, because data related to physical IPV perpetration were collected during a face-to-face interview, it is possible that participants may have underreported their use of violence in intimate relationships (Schwartz, 2000) and provided socially desirable responses, thereby limiting the accuracy and frequency of the information provided.

Implications

This study sought to examine the moderating effect of interpersonal social support on the alcohol use–IPV perpetration relationship among Black men. Our finding does not support our hypothesis that interpersonal social support buffered the relationship between alcohol use and physical IPV perpetration among Black men.

Based on our findings, practitioners should develop culturally appropriate interventions aimed at preventing and addressing alcohol use in adulthood and IPV perpetration among Black men. Because alcohol use and IPV perpetration have been found to be associated, practitioners should create an integrated system of care that addresses both alcohol use and IPV perpetration in the same setting, which is consistent with a behavioral health treatment philosophy. Men who perpetrate IPV and have co-occurring alcohol dependence typically receive treatment from separate treatment facilities (Easton et al., 2007), resulting in a low likelihood that both alcohol use and IPV perpetration problems will be addressed, and where there is coordination or communication between substance use disorder treatment facilities and domestic violence agencies (Bennett & Lawson, 1994). Men with co-occurring alcohol use and domestic violence typically fail to attend a single treatment program, which reduces the likelihood that they will attend two programs with different schedules and treatment philosophies (Easton et al., 2007). Also, referrals to different treatment programs for alcohol use and domestic violence are not effective in treating alcohol use/abuse and use of violence in a systematic way (Bennett & Lawson, 1994; Easton et al., 2007). Practitioners should help Black men develop effective interpersonal support systems that enhance the development of adaptive coping strategies necessary for reducing alcohol use and addressing relationship problems. Finally, practitioners should examine not only the presence, but also the nature, of supportive relationships and critically evaluate whether such support fosters or hinders IPV perpetration and substance use.

This study identified a number of salient factors associated with IPV perpetration that could be useful in tailoring services to the population and addressing particular risk factors. Given limited resources for programming and services, it may be particularly beneficial to consider targeting services to young, low-income men in particular. A similar strategy has been applied in violence reduction with young Black males (Stevenson et al., 2021). Among young men with identified substance use disorders, a focus on stress reduction could potentially reduce IPV, and such approaches are common in mindfulness-based treatment, among other substance use services (Black, 2014). Large-scale poverty reduction strategies are beyond the scope of the current research but could conceivably result in decreases in IPV among Black families, along with other social benefits (Gillum, 2019).

Given the variations in measures of social support used across studies, this study’s finding should be replicated in future research with Black men using the Interpersonal Support Social Network Evaluation list (ISEL-12; Cohen & Hoberman, 1983; Cohen et al., 1985). Studies should also examine not just the presence of social support in assessing the relationship between alcohol use in adulthood and IPV perpetration, but also the composition of social support networks and the effectiveness of such support in reducing both alcohol use and IPV perpetration. Future studies should also employ longitudinal data to examine the causal relationships between interpersonal social support, alcohol use in adulthood, and IPV perpetration, thereby providing support for changes over time.

Footnotes

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interests with respect to the authorship and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The National Epidemiological Survey on Alcohol and Related Conditions (NESARC) was conducted and funded by the National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism (NIAAA), with supplemental support from the National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA). The authors, however, received no financial support for this study from the abovementioned sources or any other in the preparation of this manuscript.

ORCID iD

Kerry A. Lee

Author Biographies

Kerry A. Lee, PhD, MSW, is an Assistant Professor in the Graduate School of Social Work and Social Research at the Bryn Mawr College. Her research focuses on trauma (e.g., adverse childhood experience [ACEs]); child maltreatment prevention; violence perpetration and prevention within Black families; mental and behavioral health and services; substance use; and social determinants of health.

Melissa E. Smith, PhD, MSSW, is an Associate Professor at the University of Maryland, School of Social Work. Her research focuses on community-based mental health services, Black populations diagnosed with serious mental illnesses, youth, and young adults at clinical high risk for psychosis, and the intersection of race, ethnicity, sociocultural factors, and serious mental illness across the lifespan.

Charlotte Lyn Bright, PhD, MSW, is Professor and Director at the Colorado State University School of Social Work. Her research focuses on justice system involvement, gender, trauma and maltreatment, services for youth and families, and implementation science.

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